Warfarin

Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide. [PubChem]

(phenyl-1 acetyl-2 ethyl) 3-hydroxy-4 coumarine


Zalcitabine

A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxyl group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by a hydrogen. This modification prevents the formation of 5' to 3' phosphodiester linkages, which are needed for the elongation of DNA chains, thus resulting in the termination of viral DNA growth. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication at low concentrations, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA by binding to reverse transcriptase. Its principal toxic side effect is axonal degeneration resulting in peripheral neuropathy. [PubChem]


Zidovudine

A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIV-induced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia. [PubChem]

Azidothymidine Azt Zidovudin Zidovudinum


Diltiazem

Diltiazem is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzothiazepine derivative with vasodilating action due to its antagonism of the actions of the calcium ion in membrane functions. It is also teratogenic. [PubChem]Possibly by deforming the channel, inhibiting ion-control gating mechanisms, and/or interfering with the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, diltiazem, like verapamil, inhibits the influx of extracellular calcium across both the myocardial and vascular smooth muscle cell membranes. The resultant inhibition of the contractile processes of the myocardial smooth muscle cells leads to dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries and improved oxygen delivery to the myocardial tissue.


Spirapril is an ACE inhibitor antihypertensive drug used to treat hypertension. Like many ACE inhibitors, this is a prodrug which is converted to the active metabolite spiraprilat following oral administration. ACE inhibitors are used primarily in treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure.


Thonzylamine

Thonzylamine, also known as tonamil or neohetramine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as anisoles. These are organic compounds containing a methoxybenzene or a derivative thereof. Thonzylamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, thonzylamine is involved in the thonzylamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Thonzylamine is a first-generation ethylenediamine H1-antihistamine.


Irinotecan is an antineoplastic enzyme inhibitor primarily used in the treatment of colorectal cancer. It is a derivative of camptothecin that inhibits the action of topoisomerase I. Irinotecan prevents religation of the DNA strand by binding to topoisomerase I-DNA complex, and causes double-strand DNA breakage and cell death.

Irinotecan hydrochloride trihydrate
Irinotecanum [inn-latin]
Biotecan


(2E)-Decenoyl-CoA is a beta-oxidation intermediate, the substrate of the enzyme peroxisomal acyl-CoA thioesterase 2 (PTE-2, 3.1.2.2), which is localized in the peroxisome. The peroxisomal beta-oxidation system contains two sets of enzymes, one of which is involved in the oxidation of branched chain fatty acids and intermediates in the hepatic bile acid biosynthetic pathway and consists of one or two branched-chain acyl-CoA oxidase(s), a D-specific bifunctional protein and the sterol carrier-like protein x (SCPx). Peroxisomes are cellular organelles present in all eukaryotic cells. They play an indispensable role in the metabolism of a variety of lipids including very long-chain fatty acids, dicarboxylic fatty acids, bile acids, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, pristanic acid, and xenobiotic fatty acids. (PMID: 11673457).

(e)-s-2-decenoate
(e)-s-2-decenoate coa
(e)-s-2-decenoate coenzyme a
(e)-s-2-decenoic acid
2-trans-decenoyl-coa
2-trans-decenoyl-coenzyme a
S-(2e)-2-decenoate
S-(2e)-2-decenoate coa
S-(2e)-2-decenoate coenzyme a
S-(2e)-2-decenoic acid
Trans-2-decenoylcoenzyme a
Trans-d2,3-decenoyl-coa
Trans-d2,3-decenoyl-coenzyme a
Trans-dec-2-enoyl-coa
Trans-dec-2-enoyl-coenzyme a


2-Hexaprenyl-6-methoxyphenol is involved in the ubiquinone biosynthesis pathway. 2-Hexaprenyl-6-methoxyphenol is created from 3-Hexaprenyl-4-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoate. 2-Hexaprenyl-6-methoxyphenol is then converted into 2-Hexaprenyl-6-methoxy-1,4-benzoquinone by ubiquinone biosynthesis monooxygenase Coq6 [EC:1.14.13.-].


Ibutilide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a Class III antiarrhythmic agent that is indicated for acute cardioconversion of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter of a recent onset to sinus rhythm. [Wikipedia]Ibutilide is a 'pure' class III antiarrhythmic drug, used intravenously against atrial flutter and fibrillation. At a cellular level it exerts two main actions: induction of a persistent Na+ current sensitive to dihydropyridine Ca2+ channel blockers and potent inhibition of the cardiac rapid delayed rectifier K+ current, by binding within potassium channel pores. In other words, Ibutilide binds to and alters the activity of hERG potassium channels, delayed inward rectifier potassium (IKr) channels and L-type (dihydropyridine sensitive) calcium channels

Ibutilide fumarate
Ibutilida [inn-spanish]
Ibutilidum [inn-latin]
Corvert


Ketotifen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cycloheptathiophene blocker of histamine H1 receptors and release of inflammatory mediators. It has been proposed for the treatment of asthma, rhinitis, skin allergies, and anaphylaxis. [PubChem]Ketotifen is a relatively selective, non-competitive histamine antagonist (H1-receptor) and mast cell stabilizer. Ketotifen inhibits the release of mediators from mast cells involved in hypersensitivity reactions. Decreased chemotaxis and activation of eosinophils have also been demonstrated. Ketotifen also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase. Properties of ketotifen which may contribute to its antiallergic activity and its ability to affect the underlying pathology of asthma include inhibition of the development of airway hyper-reactivity associated with activation of platelets by PAF (Platelet Activating Factor), inhibition of PAF-induced accumulation of eosinophils and platelets in the airways, suppression of the priming of eosinophils by human recombinant cytokines and antagonism of bronchoconstriction due to leukotrienes. Ketotifen inhibits of the release of allergic mediators such as histamine, leukotrienes C4 and D4(SRS-A) and PAF.

Ketotifene [inn-french]
Ketotifeno [inn-spanish]
Ketotifenum [inn-latin]
Ketotifene fumarate
Ketotifen fumarate
Alaway


Oxprenolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-selective beta blocker with some intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. It is used for the treatment of angina pectoris, abnormal heart rhythms, anxiety, and high blood pressure. Oxprenolol is a lipophilic beta blocker which passes the blood-brain barrier more easily than water-soluble beta blockers. As such, it is associated with a higher incidence of CNS-related side effects than beta blockers with more hydrophilic molecules such as atenolol, sotalol, and nadolol (Wikipedia). Like other beta-adrenergic antagonists, oxprenolol competes with adrenergic neurotransmitters such as catecholamines for binding at sympathetic receptor sites. Like propranolol and timolol, oxprenolol binds at beta(1)-adrenergic receptors in the heart and vascular smooth muscle, inhibiting the effects of the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine and decreasing heart rate, cardiac output, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It also blocks beta-2 adrenergic receptors located in bronchiole smooth muscle, causing vasoconstriction. By binding beta-2 receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus, oxprenolol inhibits the production of renin, thereby inhibiting angiotensin II and aldosterone production. Oxprenolol, therefore, inhibits the vasoconstriction and water retention due to angiotensin II and aldosterone, respectively.


Erlotinib

Erlotinib hydrochloride (trade name Tarceva, Genentech/OSIP, originally coded as OSI-774) is a drug used to treat non-small cell lung cancer, pancreatic cancer and several other types of cancer. Similar to gefitinib, erlotinib specifically targets the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase. It binds in a reversible fashion to the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binding site of the receptor. Erlotinib has recently been shown to be a potent inhibitor of JAK2V617F activity. JAK2V617F is a mutant of tyrosine kinase JAK2, is found in most patients with polycythemia vera (PV) and a substantial proportion of patients with idiopathic myelofibrosis or essential thrombocythemia. The study suggests that erlotinib may be used for treatment of JAK2V617F-positive PV and other myeloproliferative disorders.


2-hydroxybutyric acid

2-Hydroxybutyric acid (alpha-hydroxybutyrate) is an organic acid derived from alpha-ketobutyrate. alpha-Ketobutyrate is produced by amino acid catabolism (threonine and methionine) and glutathione anabolism (cysteine formation pathway) and is metabolized to propionyl-CoA and carbon dioxide (PMID: 20526369). 2-Hydroxybutyric acid is formed as a by-product of the formation of alpha-ketobutyrate via a reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or alpha-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (alphaHBDH). alpha-Hydroxybutyric acid is primarily produced in mammalian hepatic tissues that catabolize L-threonine or synthesize glutathione. Oxidative stress or detoxification of xenobiotics in the liver can dramatically increase the rate of hepatic glutathione synthesis. Under such metabolic stress conditions, supplies of L-cysteine for glutathione synthesis become limiting, so homocysteine is diverted from the transmethylation pathway (which forms methionine) into the transsulfuration pathway (which forms cystathionine). 2-Hydroxybutyrate is released as a byproduct when cystathionine is cleaved into cysteine that is incorporated into glutathione. Chronic shifts in the rate of glutathione synthesis may be reflected by urinary excretion of 2-hydroxybutyrate. 2-Hydroxybutyrate is an early marker for both insulin resistance and impaired glucose regulation that appears to arise due to increased lipid oxidation and oxidative stress (PMID: 20526369). 2-Hydroxybutyric acid is often found in the urine of patients suffering from lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis. 2-Hydroxybutyric acid generally appears at high concentrations in situations related to deficient energy metabolism (e.g. birth asphyxia) and also in inherited metabolic diseases affecting the central nervous system during neonatal development, such as "cerebral" lactic acidosis, glutaric aciduria type II, dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) deficiency, and propionic acidemia. More recently it has been noted that elevated levels of alpha-hydroxybutyrate in the plasma is a good marker for early-stage type II diabetes (PMID: 19166731). It was concluded from studies done in the mid-1970's that an increased NADH2/NAD ratio was the most important factor for the production of 2-hydroxybutyric acid (PMID: 168632).

(rs)-2-hydroxybutyrate
(rs)-2-hydroxybutyric acid
2-hydroxy-butanoate
2-hydroxy-butanoic acid
2-hydroxy-dl-butyrate
2-hydroxy-dl-butyric acid
2-hydroxy-n-butyrate
2-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
2-hydroxybutanoate
2-hydroxybutanoic acid
2-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-2-hydroxybutanoate
Dl-2-hydroxybutanoic acid
Dl-a-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-a-hydroxybutyric acid
Dl-alpha-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-alpha-hydroxybutyric acid
A-hydroxy-n-butyrate
A-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
A-hydroxybutanoate
A-hydroxybutanoic acid
A-hydroxybutyrate
A-hydroxybutyric acid
Alpha-hydroxy-n-butyrate
Alpha-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
Alpha-hydroxybutanoate
Alpha-hydroxybutanoic acid
Alpha-hydroxybutyrate
Alpha-hydroxybutyric acid
α-hydroxybutanoate
α-hydroxybutanoic acid
α-hydroxybutyrate
α-hydroxybutyric acid


Estrone (also oestrone) is an estrogenic hormone secreted by the ovary. Its molecular formula is C18H22O2. estrone has a melting point of 254.5 degrees Celsius. estrone is one of the three estrogens, which also include estriol and estradiol. estrone is the least prevalent of the three hormones, estradiol being prevalent almost always in a female body, estriol being prevalent primarily during pregnancy. estrone sulfate is relevant to health and disease due to its conversion to estrone sulfate, a long-lived derivative of estrone. estrone sulfate acts as a pool of estrone which can be converted as needed to the more active estradiol.


Pentazocine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the first mixed agonist-antagonist analgesic to be marketed. It is an agonist at the kappa and sigma opioid receptors and has a weak antagonist action at the mu receptor. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1991, p97)The preponderance of evidence suggests that pentazocine antagonizes the opioid effects by competing for the same receptor sites, especially the opioid mu receptor.

L-pentazocine Pentazocaine Pentazocin Fortral


Benzocaine

Benzocaine is a surface anesthetic that acts by preventing transmission of impulses along nerve fibers and at nerve endings. Benzocaine is a local anesthetic commonly used as a topical pain reliever. It is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter analgesic ointments. Benzocaine is an ester, a compound made from the organic acid PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) and ethanol. The process in which this ester is created is known as Fischer esterification.

(p-(ethoxycarbonyl)phenylamine
4-(ethoxycarbonyl)aniline
4-(ethoxycarbonyl)phenylamine
4-aminobenzoate
4-aminobenzoic acid
4-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester
4-carbethoxyaniline
Aethoform
Amben ethyl ester
Americaine
Anaesthan-syngala
Anaesthesin
Anaesthin
Anestezin
Anesthesin
Anesthesine
Anesthone
Baby anbesol
Benzoak
Benzocaine
Dermoplast
Diet ayds
Ethoform
Ethyl 4-aminobenzoate
Ethyl 4-aminobenzoic acid
Ethyl aminobenzoate
Ethyl aminobenzoic acid
Ethyl p-aminobenzenecarboxylate
Ethyl p-aminobenzoate
Ethyl p-aminobenzoic acid
Ethyl p-aminophenylcarboxylate
Ethylester kyseliny p-aminobenzoove
Hurricaine
Identhesin
Keloform
Norcain
Norcaine
Ora-jel
Orabase-b
Orthesin
Parathesin
Parathesine
Slim mint gum
Solarcaine
Solu h
Topcaine
P-(ethoxycarbonyl)aniline
P-aminobenzoate
P-aminobenzoic acid
P-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester
P-carbethoxyaniline
P-ethoxycarboxylic aniline
Benzocaina
Benzocainum
4-aminobenzoate ethyl ester
Ethyl p-aminophenylcarboxylic acid


Fosinoprilat

Fosinoprilat, also known as fosinoprilic acid or fosfenopril, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as proline and derivatives. Proline and derivatives are compounds containing proline or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of proline at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Fosinoprilat is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Fosinoprilat can be converted into fosinopril..


Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug which is used for the treatment of edema associated with congestive heart failure, cirrhosis of the liver, and the nephrotic syndrome; also in steroid-induced edema, idiopathic edema, and edema due to secondary hyperaldosteronism. Triamterene exists as a solid and is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral. Within the cell, triamterene is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Pteridine. A pteridine that is used as a mild diuretic. -- Pubchem; Triamterene is a potassium-sparing diuretic used in combination with thiazide diuretics for the treatment of hypertension. -- Wikipedia.

6-phenyl-2,4,7-triaminopteridine
Ademin
Ademine
Diren
Ditak
Diurene
Dyren
Dyrenium
Dytac
Jatropur
Noridil
Noridyl
Pterofen
Pterophene
Taturil
Teriam
Teridin
Tri-span
Triampur
Triamteren
Triamterene
Triamteril
Triamteril complex
Trispan
Triteren


2-Methoxyestrone is a steroid derivative that is a byproduct of estrone and 2-hydroxyestrone metabolism. It is part of the androgen and estrogen metabolic pathway. The acid ionization constant (pKa) of 2-methoxyestrone is 10.81 (PMID: 516114). 2-Methoxyestrone can be metabolized to a sulfated derivative (2-methoxyestrone 3-sulfate) via steroid sulfotransferase (EC 2.8.2.15). It can also be glucuronidated to 2-methoxyestrone 3-glucuronide by UDP glucuronosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.17).


Efavirenz

Efavirenz, also known as sustiva or DMP-266, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzoxazines. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to an oxazine ring (a six-membered aliphatic ring with four carbon atoms, one oxygen atom, and one nitrogen atom). Efavirenz is a drug which is used for use in combination treatment of hiv infection (aids). Efavirenz exists as a solid and is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral. Efavirenz has been detected in multiple biofluids, such as urine and blood. Within the cell, efavirenz is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). In humans, efavirenz is involved in the efavirenz action pathway. Efavirenz (brand names Sustiva and Stocrin) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and is used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1.


Terfenadine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. In the U.S., Terfenadine was superseded by fexofenadine in the 1990s due to the risk of cardiac arrhythmia caused by QT interval prolongation.Terfenadine competes with histamine for binding at H1-receptor sites in the GI tract, uterus, large blood vessels, and bronchial muscle. This reversible binding of terfenadine to H1-receptors suppresses the formation of edema, flare, and pruritus resulting from histaminic activity. As the drug does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier, CNS depression is minimal.


Levorphanol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic that may be habit-forming. It is nearly as effective orally as by injection. [PubChem]Like other mu-agonist opioids it is believed to act at receptors in the periventricular and periaqueductal gray matter in both the brain and spinal cord to alter the transmission and perception of pain.

Dea no. 9220
Dea no. 9733
Levorfanol [inn-spanish]
Levorfanolo [dcit]
Levorphanol dl-form
Levorphanolum [inn-latin]
Methorfinan [czech]
Methorphinan
Racemethorphanum
Racemorfano [inn-spanish]
Levorphanal
Levorphan
Levorfanolo


Delavirdine

Delavirdine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor with activity specific for HIV-1. [PubChem]Delavirdine binds directly to viral reverse transcriptase (RT) and blocks the RNA-dependent and DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activities by disrupting the enzyme's catalytic site.


Fentanyl

A potent narcotic analgesic, abuse of which leads to habituation or addiction. It is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. Fentanyl is also used as an adjunct to general anesthetics, and as an anesthetic for induction and maintenance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1078)


beta-D-fructofuranose 2-phosphate

Beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate, also known as 2-O-phosphono-b-D-fructofuranose or b-D-fructofuranose 2-phosphate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as c-glycosyl compounds. These are glycoside in which a sugar group is bonded through one carbon to another group via a C-glycosidic bond. Beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, Beta-D-fructose 2-phosphate is involved in the fructose and mannose degradation pathway and the fructose intolerance, hereditary pathway. Beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate is also involved in the metabolic disorder called the fructosuria pathway. beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate is involved in the fructose eand mannose system. beta-D-Fructose 2-phosphate is produced from beta-D-Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate by the enzyme fructose-2,6-bisphosphate 6-phosphatase [EC 3.1.3.54].

Beta-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphate
Beta-d-fructose 2-phosphate
2-o-phosphono-beta-d-fructofuranose
2-phospho-beta-d-fructofuranose
2-o-phosphono-b-d-fructofuranose
2-o-phosphono-β-d-fructofuranose
B-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphate
B-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphoric acid
Beta-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphoric acid
β-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphate
β-d-fructofuranose 2-phosphoric acid
2-phospho-b-d-fructofuranose
2-phospho-β-d-fructofuranose
B-d-fructose 2-phosphate
B-d-fructose 2-phosphoric acid
Beta-d-fructose 2-phosphoric acid
β-d-fructose 2-phosphate
β-d-fructose 2-phosphoric acid


Dimethindene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antihistamine/anticholinergic used orally and locally as an antipruritic. Dimethindene is a selective histamine H1 antagonist and binds to the histamine H1 receptor. This blocks the action of endogenous histamine, which subsequently leads to temporary relief of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine.


Nadolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-selective beta-adrenergic antagonist with a long half-life, used in cardiovascular disease to treat arrhythmias, angina pectoris, and hypertension. Nadolol is also used for migraine disorders and for tremor. [PubChem]Like other beta-adrenergic antagonists, nadolol competes with adrenergic neurotransmitters such as catecholamines for binding at sympathetic receptor sites. Like propranolol and timolol, nadolol binds at beta(1)-adrenergic receptors in the heart and vascular smooth muscle, inhibiting the effects of the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine and decreasing heart rate, cardiac output, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It also blocks beta-2 adrenergic receptors located in bronchiole smooth muscle, causing vasoconstriction. By binding beta-2 receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus, nadolol inhibits the production of renin, thereby inhibiting angiotensin II and aldosterone production. Nadolol therefore inhibits the vasoconstriction and water retention due to angiotensin II and aldosterone, respectively.


Nizatidine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a histamine H2 receptor antagonist with low toxicity that inhibits gastric acid secretion. The drug is used for the treatment of duodenal ulcers. [PubChem]Nizatidine competes with histamine for binding at the H2-receptors on the gastric basolateral membrane of parietal cells. Competitive inhibition results in reduction of basal and nocturnal gastric acid secretions. The drug also decreases the gastric acid response to stimuli such as food, caffeine, insulin, betazole, or pentagastrin.


Quantitatively, the most important metabolite of nicotine in most mammalian species is cotinine. In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine.

(-)-cotinine
(s)-(-)-cotinine
(s)-cotinine
Cotinina
Cotininum
S-(-)-cotinine
Cotinine(15% of the dose)


Vitamin A

Retinyl palmitate, or vitamin A palmitate, is a common vitamin supplement, with formula C36H60O2. It is available in both oral and injectable forms for treatment of vitamin A deficiency, under the brand names Aquasol and Palmitate. Retinyl palmitate is an alternate for retinyl acetate in vitamin A supplements, and is available in oily or dry forms. It is a pre-formed version of vitamin A, and can thus be realistically over-dosed, unlike beta-carotene.

All-trans-retinol palmitate
All-trans-retinyl palmitate
All-trans-vitamin a palmitate
Aquapalm
Aquasol a
Arovit
Axerophthol palmitate
Dispatabs tabs
Ester found in fish liver oils
Lutavit a 500 plus
Myvak
Myvax
Optovit a
Optovit-a
Retinol palmitate
Retinyl hexadecanoate
Retinyl hexadecanoic acid
Retinyl palmitate
Retinyl palmitic acid
Testavol s
Vitamin a palmitate
Vitazyme a
Trans-retinol palmitate
Trans-retinyl palmitate
All-trans-retinyl hexadecanoate
All-trans-retinyl hexadecanoic acid
All-trans-retinyl palmitic acid
Retinol palmitic acid
Vitamin a palmitic acid


20alpha,22beta-Dihydroxycholesterol is an intermediate in C21-Steroid hormone metabolism. 20alpha,22beta-Dihydroxycholesterol is the 8th to last step in the synthesis of 3alpha,11beta,21-Trihydroxy-20-oxo-5beta-pregnan-18-al and is converted from 20alpha-Hydroxycholesterol via the enzyme cytochrome P450 (EC 1.14.15.6). It is then converted to Pregnenolone via the enzyme cytochrome P450 (EC 1.14.15.6).


20alpha-Hydroxycholesterol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as cholesterols and derivatives. Cholesterols and derivatives are compounds containing a 3-hydroxylated cholestane core. Thus, 20alpha-hydroxycholesterol is considered to be a sterol lipid molecule. 20alpha-Hydroxycholesterol is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. 20alpha-Hydroxycholesterol has been found throughout all human tissues, and has also been primarily detected in urine. Within the cell, 20alpha-hydroxycholesterol is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP), mitochondria and cytoplasm. In humans, 20alpha-hydroxycholesterol is involved in the steroidogenesis pathway. 20alpha-Hydroxycholesterol is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include corticosterone methyl oxidase II deficiency - cmo II, the apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome pathway, corticosterone methyl oxidase I deficiency (cmo I), and the congenital lipoid adrenal hyperplasia (clah) or lipoid cah pathway. 20 alpha-hydroxycholesterol participates in C21-Steroid hormone metabolism. 20 alpha-hydroxycholesterol is produced by the reaction between cholesterol and the enzyme, cholesterol monooxygenase (side-chain-cleaving) [EC:1.14.15.6].


21-Hydroxy-5beta-pregnane-3,11,20-trione is an intermediate in C21-Steroid hormone metabolism. 21-Hydroxy-5beta-pregnane-3,11,20-trione is the. second to last step in the synthesis of 3alpha,20alpha,21-Trihydroxy-5beta-pregnane-11-one and is converted from 11-Dehydrocorticosterone via the enzyme 3-oxo-5beta-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (EC 1.3.99.6). It is then converted to 3alpha,21-Dihydroxy-5beta-pregnane-11,20-dione via the enzyme 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.50).


Phenindamine is an antihistamine. Phenindamine blocks the effects of the naturally occurring chemical histamine in your body. Antihistamines such as phenindamine appear to compete with histamine for histamine H1- receptor sites on effector cells. The antihistamines antagonize those pharmacological effects of histamine which are mediated through activation of H1- receptor sites and thereby reduce the intensity of allergic reactions and tissue injury response involving histamine release. It is used to treat sneezing, runny nose, itching, watery eyes, hives, rashes, itching, and other symptoms of allergies and the common cold. Symptoms of a phenindamine overdose include extreme sleepiness, confusion, weakness, ringing in the ears, blurred vision, large pupils, dry mouth, flushing, fever, shaking, insomnia, hallucinations, and possibly seizures.

Fenindamina [inn-spanish]
Phenindaminum [inn-latin]
Phenindiamine
Nolahist
Thephorin


Oxytetracycline

Oxytetracycline is a tetracycline analog isolated from the actinomycete streptomyces rimosus and used in a wide variety of clinical conditions. [PubChem]Oxytetracycline inhibits cell growth by inhibiting translation. It binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit and prevents the amino-acyl tRNA from binding to the A site of the ribosome. The binding is reversible in nature. Oxytetracycline is lipophilic and can easily pass through the cell membrane or passively diffuses through porin channels in the bacterial membrane. Oxytetracycline is a clinically used broad-spectrum antibacterial antibiotic. It is approved by FDA for use in fish and animal feeds. Oxytetracycline is known as a broad-spectrum antibiotic due to its activity against such a wide range of infections. It was the second of the tetracyclines to be discovered. Oxytetracycline, like other tetracyclines, is used to treat many infections common and rare. Its better absorption profile makes it preferable to tetracycline for moderately severe acne, but alternatives sould be sought if no improvement occurs by 3 months.Oxytetracycline has been shown to exhibit catabolic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and antibiotic functions (PMID 22013404, 21136283, 21488905, 17386724).Oxytetracycline belongs to the family of Tetracyclines. These are polyketides having an octahydrotetracene-2-carboxamide skeleton, substituted with many hydroxy and other groups[1]. (Reference: [1] IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book"). Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1997). XML on-line corrected version: http://goldbook.iupac.org (2006-) created by M. Nic, J. Jirat, B. Kosata; updates compiled by A. Jenkins. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8. doi:10.1351/goldbook. (PAC, 1995, 67, 1307 (PAC, 1995, 67, 1307 (Glossary of class names of organic compounds and reactivity intermediates based on structure (IUPAC Recommendations 1995)) on page 1371)).

6153-65-7 (di-hydrochloride salt, di-hydrate)


Lysine

L-lysine is an essential amino acid. Normal requirements for lysine have been found to be about 8 g per day or 12 mg/kg in adults. Children and infants need more- 44 mg/kg per day for an eleven to-twelve-year old, and 97 mg/kg per day for three-to six-month old. Lysine is highly concentrated in muscle compared to most other amino acids. Lysine is high in foods such as wheat germ, cottage cheese and chicken. Of meat products, wild game and pork have the highest concentration of lysine. Fruits and vegetables contain little lysine, except avocados. Normal lysine metabolism is dependent upon many nutrients including niacin, vitamin B6, riboflavin, vitamin C, glutamic acid and iron. Excess arginine antagonizes lysine. Several inborn errors of lysine metabolism are known. Most are marked by mental retardation with occasional diverse symptoms such as absence of secondary sex characteristics, undescended testes, abnormal facial structure, anemia, obesity, enlarged liver and spleen, and eye muscle imbalance. Lysine also may be a useful adjunct in the treatment of osteoporosis. Although high protein diets result in loss of large amounts of calcium in urine, so does lysine deficiency. Lysine may be an adjunct therapy because it reduces calcium losses in urine. Lysine deficiency also may result in immunodeficiency. Requirements for this amino acid are probably increased by stress. Lysine toxicity has not occurred with oral doses in humans. Lysine dosages are presently too small and may fail to reach the concentrations necessary to prove potential therapeutic applications. Lysine metabolites, amino caproic acid and carnitine have already shown their therapeutic potential. Thirty grams daily of amino caproic acid has been used as an initial daily dose in treating blood clotting disorders, indicating that the proper doses of lysine, its precursor, have yet to be used in medicine. Low lysine levels have been found in patients with Parkinson's, hypothyroidism, kidney disease, asthma and depression. The exact significance of these levels is unclear, yet lysine therapy can normalize the level and has been associated with improvement of some patients with these conditions. Abnormally elevated hydroxylysines have been found in virtually all chronic degenerative diseases and coumadin therapy. The levels of this stress marker may be improved by high doses of vitamin C. Lysine is particularly useful in therapy for marasmus (wasting) and herpes simplex. It stops the growth of herpes simplex in culture, and has helped to reduce the number and occurrence of cold sores in clinical studies. Dosing has not been adequately studied, but beneficial clinical effects occur in doses ranging from 100 mg to 4 g a day. Higher doses may also be useful, and toxicity has not been reported in doses as high as 8 g per day. Diets high in lysine and low in arginine can be useful in the prevention and treatment of herpes. Some researchers think herpes simplex virus is involved in many other diseases related to cranial nerves such as migraines, Bell's palsy and Meniere's disease. Herpes blister fluid will produce fatal encephalitis in the rabbit. (http://www.dcnutrition.com).

(+)-s-lysine
(s)-2,6-diaminohexanoate
(s)-2,6-diaminohexanoic acid
(s)-2,6-diamino-hexanoate
(s)-2,6-diamino-hexanoic acid
(s)-lysine
(s)-a,e-diaminocaproate
(s)-a,e-diaminocaproic acid
2,6-diaminohexanoate
2,6-diaminohexanoic acid
6-amino-aminutrin
6-amino-l-norleucine
Aminutrin
L-(+)-lysine
L-2,6-diainohexanoate
L-2,6-diainohexanoic acid
L-2,6-diaminocaproate
L-2,6-diaminocaproic acid
L-lys
Lys
Lysine
Lysine acid
A-lysine
Alpha-lysine
H-lys-oh
(s)-alpha,epsilon-diaminocaproic acid
6-ammonio-l-norleucine
K
L-lysin
(s)-a,epsilon-diaminocaproate
(s)-a,epsilon-diaminocaproic acid
(s)-alpha,epsilon-diaminocaproate
(s)-α,epsilon-diaminocaproate
(s)-α,epsilon-diaminocaproic acid


Quifenadine

Quifenadine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Quifenadine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, quifenadine is involved in the quifenadine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Quifenadine is a second-generation H1-antihistamine.


Tolpropamine

Tolpropamine, also known as pragman, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Tolpropamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, tolpropamine is involved in the tolpropamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Tolpropamine is an alkylamine H1-antihistamine.


phenbenzamine

Phenbenzamine, also known as viternum or cyproheptadine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylbenzamines. These are aromatic compounds consisting of a benzyl group that is N-linked to a benzamine. Phenbenzamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, phenbenzamine is involved in the phenbenzamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Promethazine is a first-generation ethylenediamine H1-antihistamine.


Phenyltoloxamine

Phenyltoloxamine, also known as phenoxadrin or antin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Phenyltoloxamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, phenyltoloxamine is involved in the phenyltoloxamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Phenyltoloxamine is a first-generation ethanolamine H1-antihistamine.


fenethazine

Fenethazine, also known as ethysine or etisin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenothiazines. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a phenothiazine moiety, which is a linear tricyclic system that consists of a two benzene rings joined by a para-thiazine ring. Fenethazine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, fenethazine is involved in the fenethazine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Fenethazine (phenethazinum) is a first-generation phenothiazine H1-antihistamine.


Mebhydrolin

Mebhydrolin, also known as bexidal or diazolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as n-alkylindoles. N-alkylindoles are compounds containing an indole moiety that carries an alkyl chain at the 1-position. Mebhydrolin is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, mebhydrolin is involved in the mebhydrolin H1-antihistamine action pathway. Mebhydrolin is a first-generation antihistamine.


Histapyrrodine

Histapyrrodine, also known as domistan or luvistin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylbenzamines. These are aromatic compounds consisting of a benzyl group that is N-linked to a benzamine. Histapyrrodine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, histapyrrodine is involved in the histapyrrodine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Histapyrrodine is a first-generation ethylenediamine H1-antihistamine.


Bamipine

Bamipine, also known as soventol or taumidrine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as stilbenes. These are organic compounds containing a 1,2-diphenylethylene moiety. Stilbenes (C6-C2-C6 ) are derived from the common phenylpropene (C6-C3) skeleton building block. The introduction of one or more hydroxyl groups to a phenyl ring lead to stilbenoids. Bamipine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, bamipine is involved in the bamipine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Bamipine is a first-generation piperidine H1-antihistamine.


Isothipendyl

Isothipendyl is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antihistamine and anticholinergic used as an antipruritic.Isothipendyl is a selective histamine H1 antagonist and binds to the histamine H1 receptor. This blocks the action of endogenous histamine, which subsequently leads to temporary relief of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine.


Thenalidine

Thenalidine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dialkylarylamines. These are aliphatic aromatic amines in which the amino group is linked to two aliphatic chains and one aromatic group. Thenalidine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Thenalidine is a piperidine H1-antihistamine that was withdrawn from Canadian, US, and UK markets in 1963 due to concerns involving neutropenia (DB04826).


Thiazinam

Thiazinamium, also known as multergan or thiazinamon, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenothiazines. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a phenothiazine moiety, which is a linear tricyclic system that consists of a two benzene rings joined by a para-thiazine ring. Thiazinamium is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, thiazinamium is involved in the metabolic disorder called the thiazinamium H1-antihistamine action pathway. Thiazinamium is a first-generation phenothiazine H1-antihistamine.


Chlorphenoxamine

Chlorphenoxamine, also known as systral or phenoxene, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Chlorphenoxamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, chlorphenoxamine is involved in the chlorphenoxamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Chlorphenoxamine is a first-generation ethanolamine H1-antihistamine.


Talastine

Talastine, also known as aganon or HL 2186, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phthalazinones. Phthalazinones are compounds containing a phthalazine bearing a ketone group. Talastine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, talastine is involved in the talastine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Talastine is a first-generation alkylamine H1-antihistamine.


Pyrrobutamine

Pyrrobutamine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as stilbenes. These are organic compounds containing a 1,2-diphenylethylene moiety. Stilbenes (C6-C2-C6 ) are derived from the common phenylpropene (C6-C3) skeleton building block. The introduction of one or more hydroxyl groups to a phenyl ring lead to stilbenoids. Pyrrobutamine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, pyrrobutamine is involved in the pyrrobutamine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Pyrrobutamine is an H1-antihistamine.


Oxomemazine

Oxomemazine, also known as doxergan or (±)-oxomemazine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenothiazines. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a phenothiazine moiety, which is a linear tricyclic system that consists of a two benzene rings joined by a para-thiazine ring. Oxomemazine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, oxomemazine is involved in the oxomemazine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Oxomemazine is a first-generation phenothiazine H1-antihistamine.


embramine

Embramine, also known as bromadryl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Embramine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, embramine is involved in the embramine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Embramine is an ethanolamine H1-antihistamine.


clocinizine

Clocinizine, also known as chlorcinnarizine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as diphenylmethanes. Diphenylmethanes are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups. Clocinizine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, clocinizine is involved in the clocinizine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Clocinizine is a first-generation diphenylmethylpiperazine H1-antihistamine.


Rupatadine

Rupatadine, also known as alergoliber or pafinur, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzocycloheptapyridines. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzene ring and a pyridine ring fused to a seven membered carbocycle. Rupatadine is a drug which is used for the symptomatic relief of nasal and non-nasal symptoms of seasonal allergic rhinitis and perennial allergic rhinitis in patients 2 years of age and older [fda label]. also used for the symptomatic relief of chronic spontaneous urticaria in patients 2 years of age and older. Rupatadine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, rupatadine is involved in the rupatadine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Rupatadine is a second-generation tricyclic H1-antihistamine.


Temocapril

Temocapril belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dipeptides. These are organic compounds containing a sequence of exactly two alpha-amino acids joined by a peptide bond. Temocapril is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, temocapril is involved in the temocapril metabolism pathway and the temocapril action pathway.


Tritoqualine

Tritoqualine, also known as hypostamine or inhibostamin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phthalide isoquinolines. These are organic compounds with a structure characterized by an isoquinoline moiety linked to phthalide. Tritoqualine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, tritoqualine is involved in the tritoqualine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Tritoqualine is an H1-antihistamine.


Bilastine

Bilastine, also known as bilanoa or bilaxten, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzimidazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene ring fused to an imidazole ring (five member ring containing a nitrogen atom, 4 carbon atoms, and two double bonds). Bilastine is a drug which is used for symptomatic relief of nasal and non-nasal symptoms of seasonal rhinitis in patients 12 years of age and older and for symptomatic relief in chronic spontaneous urticaria in patients 18 years of age and older [fda label]. Bilastine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, bilastine is involved in the bilastine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Bilastine is a second-generation piperidine H1-antihistamine.


Hydroxyethylpromethazine

Hydroxyethylpromethazine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenothiazines. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a phenothiazine moiety, which is a linear tricyclic system that consists of a two benzene rings joined by a para-thiazine ring. Hydroxyethylpromethazine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. In humans, hydroxyethylpromethazine is involved in the hydroxyethylpromethazine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Hydroxyethylpromethazine is a first-generation phenothiazine H1-antihistamine.


Ximelagatran

Ximelagatran (Exanta or Exarta, H 376/95) is an anticoagulant that has been investigated extensively as a replacement for warfarin that would overcome the problematic dietary, drug interaction, and monitoring issues associated with warfarin therapy. In 2006, its manufacturer AstraZeneca announced that it would not attempt to market ximelagatran after reports of hepatotoxicity (liver damage) during trials, and to discontinue its distribution in countries where the drug had been approved.

Ethyl 2-[[(1r)-1-cyclohexyl-2- [(2s)-2-[[4-(n'-hydroxycarbamimidoyl) phenyl]methylcarbamoyl]azetidin-1-yl]- 2-oxo-ethyl]amino]acetate


1-pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid

1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid is an enamine or an imino acid that forms upon the spontaneous dehydration of L-glutamate gamma-semialdehyde in aqueous solutions. The stereoisomer (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate is an intermediate in glutamate metabolism, arginine degradation, and proline biosynthesis and degradation. It can also be converted into or be formed from three amino acids: L-glutamate, L-ornithine, and L-proline. In particular, it is synthesized via the oxidation of proline by pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1) (EC 1.5.1.2) or by proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) (EC 1.5.99.8). It is hydrolyzed to L-glutamate by delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (ALDH4A1) (EC 1.5.1.12). It is also one of the few metabolites that can act as a precursor to other metabolites of both the urea cycle and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Under certain conditions, pyrroline-5-carboxylate can act as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of pyrroline-5-carboxylate are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism, including hyperprolinemia type I, hyperprolinemia type II, iminoglycinuria, prolinemia type II, and pyruvate carboxylase deficiency. Hyperprolinemia type II results in high levels of pyrroline-5-carboxylate. People with hyperprolinemia type II have signs and symptoms that vary in severity, but they are more likely than type I to have seizures or intellectual disability. Pyrroline-5-carboxylate is highly reactive and excess quantities have been shown to cause cell death and apoptosis (PMID: 15548746).


3,4-Dihydroxyphenylglycol (DOPEG) is a normal norepinephrine metabolite present in CSF, plasma and urine in humans (PMID 6875564). In healthy individuals there is a tendency for free DOPEG to increase and for conjugated DOPEG to decrease with age; plasmatic DOPEG levels are significantly lower in depressed patients as compared to healthy controls (PMID 6671452).


L-pyridosine

Flunarizine is a selective calcium entry blocker with calmodulin binding properties and histamine H1 blocking activity. It is effective in the prophylaxis of migraine, occlusive peripheral vascular disease, vertigo of central and peripheral origin, and as an adjuvant in the therapy of epilepsy.


Hydroxycelecoxib is only found in individuals that have used or taken Celecoxib. Hydroxycelecoxib is a metabolite of Celecoxib. Hydroxycelecoxib belongs to the family of Phenylpyrazoles. These are compounds containing a phenylpyrazole skeleton, which consists of a pyrazole bound to a phenyl group.


glutaurine

5-L-Glutamyl-taurine, also known as glutaurin or gamma-L-glutamyltaurine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamine and derivatives. Glutamine and derivatives are compounds containing glutamine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, 5-L-glutamyl-taurine is involved in the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is an intermediate in Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism. 5-L-Glutamyl-taurine is produced from Taurine via the enzyme gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (EC 2.3.2.2).


S-Methyl glutathione

S-Methyl-glutathione, also known as S-methyl gsh, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as oligopeptides. These are organic compounds containing a sequence of between three and ten alpha-amino acids joined by peptide bonds. S-Methyl-glutathione is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa).


BAIBA

beta-aminoisobutyric acid is the product from the conversion of N-carbamyl-beta-aminoisobutyric acid by the enzyme Beta-ureidopropionase (EC 3.5.1.6), the last step in pyrimidine degradation. Beta-ureidopropionase deficiency is an inborn error of pyrimidine degradation associated with neurological abnormalities (OMIM 606673).

(+/-)-3-amino-2-methylpropanoate
(+/-)-3-amino-2-methylpropanoic acid
(+/-)-3-aminoisobutyric acid
(+/-)-b-aminoisobutyric acid
(+/-)-beta-aminoisobutyric acid
2-methyl-b-alanine
2-methyl-beta-alanine
3-amino-2-methylpropanoate
3-amino-2-methylpropanoic acid
3-amino-isobutanoate
3-amino-isobutanoic acid
3-aminoisobutanoate
3-aminoisobutanoic acid
3-aminoisobutyrate
3-aminoisobutyric acid
Dl-2-methyl-b-alanine
Dl-2-methyl-beta-alanine
Dl-3-amino-2-methylpropionic acid
Dl-beta-aminoisobutyric acid
Dl-3-aminoisobutyric acid
A-methyl-b-alanine
Alpha-methyl-beta-alanine
B-aminoisobutyric acid
Beta-aminoisobutyric acid
2-(aminomethyl)propionic acid
Baib
2-(aminomethyl)propionate
2-methyl-β-alanine
α-methyl-β-alanine
B-aminoisobutyrate
Beta-aminoisobutyrate
β-aminoisobutyrate
β-aminoisobutyric acid
Dl-b-aminoisobutyrate
Dl-b-aminoisobutyric acid
Dl-beta-aminoisobutyrate
Dl-β-aminoisobutyrate
Dl-β-aminoisobutyric acid


N(pros)-methyl-L-histidine zwitterion

3-Methylhistidine is a product of peptide bond synthesis and methylation of actin and myosin. The measurement of 3-methylhistidine provides an index of the rate of muscle protein breakdown. 3-Methylhistidine is a biomarker for meat consumption, especially chicken. It is also a biomarker for the consumption of soy products.


L-alpha-Glycerophosphorylethanolamine

Glycerylphosphorylethanolamine, also known as gpea, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as organic phosphoramides. These are organic compounds containing the phosphoric acid amide functional group. Glycerylphosphorylethanolamine is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glycerylphosphorylethanolamine has been found in human brain, prostate and liver tissues. Within the cell, glycerylphosphorylethanolamine is primarily located in the cytoplasm. Glycerylphosphorylethanolamine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, glycerylphosphorylethanolamine is involved in phospholipid biosynthesis pathway. Glycerylphosphorylethanolamine is a membrane breakdown product resulting from the cleavage of the lipid group from glycerophosphoethanlomine fatty acids (i.e. phosphatidylethanolamine). It acts as a growth stimulant for hepatocytes.

2-aminoethyl ester 1-glycerophosphoric acid


Thuringione

Normetanephrine, also known as normetadrenaline, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Normetanephrine exists as a solid, slightly soluble (in water), and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Normetanephrine has been found in human brain and endocrine gland tissues, and has also been primarily detected in feces, urine, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. Within the cell, normetanephrine is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, normetanephrine is involved in the tyrosine metabolism pathway and the disulfiram action pathway. Normetanephrine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the tyrosinemia type I pathway, tyrosinemia, transient, OF the newborn pathway, dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency, and the alkaptonuria pathway. Normetanephrine is a methylated metabolite of norepinephrine that is excreted in the urine and found in certain tissues. It is a marker for tumors.


Metanephrine is a metabolite of epinephrine created by action of catechol O-methyltransferase on epinephrine. Technically it is a product of epinephrine O-methylation. It is a commonly occurring, pharmacologically and physiologically inactive metabolite of epinephrine. The measurement of plasma free metanephrines is considered to be the best tool in the diagnosis of pheochromocytoma, a rare kind of adrenal medullary neoplasm. In adrenal chromaffin cells, leakage of norepinephrine and epinephrine from storage granules leads to substantial intracellular production of the O-methylated metabolite metanephrine. In fact, the adrenals constitute the single largest source out of any organ system including the liver for circulating metanephrine. In humans, about 93 percent of circulating metanephrine is derived from catecholamines metabolized within adrenal chromaffin cells. (PMID 15317907).


Nateglinide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the meglitinide class of short-acting insulin secretagogues, which act by binding to cells of the pancreas to stimulate insulin release. Nateglinide is an amino acid derivative that induces an early insulin response to meals decreasing postprandial blood glucose levels. It should only be taken with meals and meal-time doses should be skipped with any skipped meal. Approximately one month of therapy is required before a decrease in fasting blood glucose is seen. Meglitnides may have a neutral effect on weight or cause a slight increase in weight. The average weight gain caused by meglitinides appears to be lower than that caused by sulfonylureas and insulin and appears to occur only in those naive to oral antidiabetic agents. Due to their mechanism of action, meglitinides may cause hypoglycemia although the risk is thought to be lower than that of sulfonylureas since their action is dependent on the presence of glucose. In addition to reducing postprandial and fasting blood glucose, meglitnides have been shown to decrease glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, which are reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control. Meglitinides appear to be more effective at lowering postprandial blood glucose than metformin, sulfonylureas and thiazolidinediones. Nateglinide is extensively metabolized in the liver and excreted in urine (83%) and feces (10%). The major metabolites possess less activity than the parent compound. One minor metabolite, the isoprene, has the same potency as its parent compound.


angiotensin I

Angiotensin I appears to have no biological activity and exists solely as a precursor to angiotensin 2. Angiotensin I is formed by the action of renin on angiotensinogen. Renin cleaves the peptide bond between the leucine (Leu) and valine (Val) residues on angiotensinogen, creating the ten-amino acid peptide (des-Asp) angiotensin I. Renin is produced in the kidneys in response to renal sympathetic activity, decreased intrarenal blood pressure at the juxtaglomerular cells, or decreased delivery of Na+ and Cl- to the macula densa.[3] If less Na+ is sensed by the macula densa, renin release by juxtaglomerular cells is increased. (Wikipedia)


7-Methyluric acid, also known as 7-methylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. 7-Methyluric acid is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 7-Methyluric acid has been primarily detected in urine. In humans, 7-methyluric acid is involved in the caffeine metabolism pathway. 7-Methyluric acid is the minor urinary metabolites of caffeine. Caffeine is metabolized mainly in the liver undergoing demethylation and oxidation.


Tigecycline

Tigecycline is a glycylcycline antibiotic developed and marketed by Wyeth under the brand name Tygacil. It was given a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) fast-track approval and was approved on June 17, 2005. It was developed in response to the growing prevalence of antibiotic resistance in bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus.


acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of acetic acid, perfumes, and flavors. It is also an intermediate in the metabolism of alcohol. It has a general narcotic action and also causes irritation of mucous membranes. Large doses may cause death from respiratory paralysis. Small amounts of acetaldehyde are produced naturally through gut microbial fermentation. Acetaldehyde is produced through the action of alcohol dehydrogenase on ethanol and is somewhate more toxic than ethanol. Acetaldehyde is linked to most of the negative clinical effects of alcohol. It has been shown to increase the risk of developing cirrhosis of the liver, multiple forms of cancer, and alcoholism.

Acetaldehyde
Acetic aldehyde
Aldehyde
Ethanal
Ethyl aldehyde
Acetaldehyd
Acetaldehydes
Azetaldehyd


Acetoacetate

Acetoacetic acid (AcAc) is a weak organic acid that can be produced in the human liver under certain conditions of poor metabolism leading to excessive fatty acid breakdown (diabetes mellitus leading to diabetic ketoacidosis). It is then partially converted into acetone by decarboxylation and excreted either in urine or through respiration. Persistent mild hyperketonemia is a common finding in newborns. Ketone bodies serve as an indispensable source of energy for extrahepatic tissues, especially the brain and lung of developing rats. Another important function of ketone bodies is to provide acetoacetyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA for synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and complex lipids. During the early postnatal period, acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are preferred over glucose as substrates for synthesis of phospholipids and sphingolipids in accord with requirements for brain growth and myelination. Thus, during the first two weeks of postnatal development, when the accumulation of cholesterol and phospholipids accelerates, the proportion of ketone bodies incorporated into these lipids increases. On the other hand, an increased proportion of ketone bodies are utilized for cerebroside synthesis during the period of active myelination. In the lung, AcAc serves better than glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of lung phospholipids. The synthesized lipids, particularly dipalmityl phosphatidylcholine, are incorporated into surfactant, and thus have a potential role in supplying adequate surfactant lipids to maintain lung function during the early days of life (PMID: 3884391). The acid is also present in the metabolism of those undergoing starvation or prolonged physical exertion as part of gluconeogenesis. When ketone bodies are measured by way of urine concentration, acetoacetic acid, along with beta-hydroxybutyric acid or acetone, is what is detected.

3-ketobutyrate
3-ketobutyric acid
3-oxo-butanoate
3-oxo-butanoic acid
3-oxobutyrate
3-oxobutyric acid
Acetoacetate
Diacetate
Diacetic acid
3-oxobutanoic acid
Beta-ketobutyric acid
3-oxobutanoate
B-ketobutyrate
B-ketobutyric acid
Beta-ketobutyrate
β-ketobutyrate
β-ketobutyric acid


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetoacetyl-CoA is an intermediate in the metabolism of Butanoate. It is a substrate for Succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid-coenzyme A transferase 1 (mitochondrial), Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase (mitochondrial), Short chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (mitochondrial), Trifunctional enzyme beta subunit (mitochondrial), Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase (cytoplasmic), Peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme, Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (cytosolic), Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (mitochondrial), 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase type II, Succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid-coenzyme A transferase 2 (mitochondrial), 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (mitochondrial), 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (peroxisomal) and Trifunctional enzyme alpha subunit (mitochondrial).

3-acetoacetyl-coa
3-acetoacetyl-coenzyme a
3-oxobutyryl-coa
3-oxobutyryl-coenzyme a
Acetoacetyl coa
Acetoacetyl coenzyme a
Acetoacetyl-coa
Acetoacetyl-coenzyme a
S-acetoacetylcoenzyme a


acetone

Acetone is one of the ketone bodies produced during ketoacidosis. Acetone is not regarded as a waste product of metabolism. However, its physiological role in biochemical machinery is not clear. A model for the role of acetone metabolism is presented that orders the events occurring in acetonemia in sequence: in diabetic ketosis or starvation, ketone body production (b-hydroxy-butyrate, acetoacetate) provides fuel for vital organs (heart, brain .) raising the chance of survival of the metabolic catastrophe. However, when ketone body production exceeds the degrading capacity, the accumulating acetoacetic acid presents a new challenge to the pH regulatory system. Acetone production and its further degradation to C3 fragments fulfill two purposes: the maintenance of pH buffering capacity and provision of fuel for peripheral tissues. Since ketosis develops under serious metabolic circumstances, all the mechanisms that balance or moderate the effects of ketosis enhance the chance for survival. From this point of view, the theory that transportable C3 fragments can serve as additional nutrients is a novel view of acetone metabolism which introduces a new approach to the study of acetone degradation, especially in understanding its physiological function and the interrelationship between liver and peripheral tissues. (PMID 10580530). Acetone is typically derived from acetoacetate through the action of microbial acetoacetate decarboxylases found in gut microflora. In chemistry, acetone is the simplest representative of the ketones. Acetone is a colorless, mobile, flammable liquid readily soluble in water, ethanol, ether, etc., and itself serves as an important solvent. Acetone is an irritant and inhalation may lead to hepatotoxic effects (causing liver damage).

Acetone
Dimethyl ketone
Dimethylformaldehyde
Methyl ketone
Propanone
Pyroacetic ether
B-ketopropane
Beta-ketopropane
2-propanone
Aceton
Azeton
Dimethylcetone
Dimethylketon
Dimethylketone
Propanon
β-ketopropane


Acetylphosphate

Acetylphosphate or actyl phosphate is a compound involved in taurine and hypotaurine metabolism as well as pyruvate metabolism. It is generated from sulfoacetaldehyde, converted to acetyl-CoA and acetate via phosphate acetyltransferase (EC:2.3.1.8) and acetate kinase (EC:2.7.2.1) respectively. It is also an intermediate in pyruvate metabolism. It is generated from pyruvate and the formation is catalyzed by pyruvate oxidase (EC:1.2.3.3).

Acetyl phosphate
Acetyl-p
Acetylphosphate


acetyl-CoA

The main function of coenzyme A is to carry acyl groups (such as the acetyl group) or thioesters. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule itself. It is the precursor to HMG CoA, which is a vital component in cholesterol and ketone synthesis. (wikipedia). acetyl CoA participates in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and sterols, in the oxidation of fatty acids and in the metabolism of many amino acids. It also acts as a biological acetylating agent.

Ac-coa
Ac-coenzyme a
Ac-s-coa
Ac-s-coenzyme a
Acetyl coenzyme-a
Acetyl-coa
Acetyl-coenzyme a
Acetyl-s-coa
Acetyl-s-coenzyme a
Acetylcoenzyme-a
S-acetate coa
S-acetate coenzyme a
S-acetyl coenzyme a
Accoa
Acetyl coenzyme a
S-acetyl-coa
S-acetyl-coenzyme a
Acetylcoenzyme a


Choline

Choline is a basic constituent of lecithin that is found in many plants and animal organs. It is important as a precursor of acetylcholine, as a methyl donor in various metabolic processes, and in lipid metabolism. Choline is now considered to be an essential vitamin. While humans can synthesize small amounts (by converting phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine), it must be consumed in the diet to maintain health. Required levels are between 425 mg/day (female) and 550 mg/day (male). Milk, eggs, liver, and peanuts are especially rich in choline. Most choline is found in phospholipids, namely phosphatidylcholine or lecithin. Choline can be oxidized to form betaine, which is a methyl source for many reactions (i.e. conversion of homocysteine into methionine). Lack of sufficient amounts of choline in the diet can lead to a fatty liver condition and general liver damage. This arises from the lack of VLDL, which is necessary to transport fats away from the liver. Choline deficiency also leads to elevated serum levels of alanine amino transferase and is associated with increased incidence of liver cancer.

(2-hydroxyethyl)trimethyl ammonium
(2-hydroxyethyl)trimethylammonium
(beta-hydroxyethyl)trimethylammonium
2-hydroxy-n,n,n-trimethyl-ethanaminium
2-hydroxy-n,n,n-trimethylethanaminium
Bilineurine
Biocolina
Biocoline
Choline
Choline cation
Choline ion
Cholinum
Hepacholine
Hormocline
Lipotril
N,n,n-trimethylethanol-ammonium
N,n,n-trimethylethanolammonium
Neocolina
Paresan
N-trimethylethanolamine
Trimethylethanolamine


Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. Its physiological and pharmacological effects, metabolism, release, and receptors have been well documented in several species. ACh has been considered an important excitatory neurotransmitter in the carotid body (CB). Various nicotinic and muscarinic ACh receptors are present in both afferent nerve endings and glomus cells. Therefore, ACh can depolarize or hyperpolarize the cell membrane depending on the available receptor type in the vicinity. Binding of ACh to its receptor can create a wide variety of cellular responses including opening cation channels (nicotinic ACh receptor activation), releasing Ca2+ from intracellular storage sites (via muscarinic ACh receptors), and modulating activities of K+ and Ca2+ channels. Interactions between ACh and other neurotransmitters (dopamine, adenosine, nitric oxide) have been known, and they may induce complicated responses. Cholinergic biology in the CB differs among species and even within the same species due to different genetic composition. Development and environment influence cholinergic biology. Pharmacological data clearly indicate that both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors have a role in the encoding of new memories. Localized lesions and antagonist infusions demonstrate the anatomical locus of these cholinergic effects, and computational modeling links the function of cholinergic modulation to specific cellular effects within these regions. Acetylcholine has been shown to increase the strength of afferent input relative to feedback, to contribute to theta rhythm oscillations, activate intrinsic mechanisms for persistent spiking, and increase the modification of synapses. These effects might enhance different types of encoding in different cortical structures. In particular, the effects in entorhinal and perirhinal cortex and hippocampus might be important for encoding new episodic memories. The role of ACh in attention has been repeatedly demonstrated in several tasks. Acetylcholine is linked to response accuracy in voluntary and reflexive attention and also to response speed in reflexive attention. It is well known that those with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders tend to be inaccurate and slow to respond. (PMID: 17284361, 17011181, 15556286).

Ach
Acetyl choline ion
Acetylcholine cation
Acetylcholinium: acetyl-choline
Choline acetate
Choline acetate (ester)
O-acetylcholine


Aspirin

Aspirin is only found in individuals who have consumed this drug. Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid (acetosal) is a drug in the family of salicylates, often used as an analgesic (against minor pains and aches), antipyretic (against fever), and anti-inflammatory. It has also an anticoagulant effect and is used in long-term low-doses to prevent heart attacks and cancer. It was isolated from meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria, formerly classified as Spiraea ulmaria) by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as irritated stomach and diarrhoea, and even death when consumed in high doses. In 1853, a French chemist named Charles Frederic Gerhardt neutralized salicylic acid by buffering it with sodium (sodium salicylate) and acetyl chloride, creating acetosalicylic anhydride. Gerhardt's product worked, but he had no desire to market it and abandoned his discovery. In 1897, researcher Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann, a research assistant at Friedrich Bayer & Co. in Germany, derivatized one of the hydroxyl functional groups in salicylic acid with an acetyl group (forming the acetyl ester), which greatly reduced the negative effects. This was the first synthetic drug, not a copy of something that existed in nature, and the start of the pharmaceuticals industry. The name 'aspirin' is composed of a- (from the acetyl group) -spir- (from the plant genus Spiraea) and -in (a common ending for drugs at the time). It has also been stated that the name originated by another means. As referring to AcetylSalicylic and 'pir' in reference to one of the scientists who was able to isolate it in crystalline form, Raffaele Piria. Finally 'in' due to the same reasons as stated above. Salicylic acid (which is a naturally occurring substance found in many plants) can be acetylated using acetic anhydride, yielding aspirin and acetic acid as a byproduct. It is a common experiment performed in organic chemistry labs, and generally tends to produce low yields due to the relative difficulty of its extraction from an aqueous state. The trick to getting the reaction to work is to acidify with phosphoric acid and heat the reagents under reflux with a boiling water bath for between 40 minutes and an hour. Aspirin acts as an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase which results in the inhibition of the biosynthesis of prostaglandins. Aspirin also inhibits platelet aggregation and is used in the prevention of arterial and venous thrombosis. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p5).

2-(acetyloxy)benzoate
2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid
2-acetoxybenzenecarboxylic acid
2-acetoxybenzoate
2-acetoxybenzoic acid
2-carboxyphenyl acetate
Acenterine
Acetard
Aceticyl
Acetol
Acetonyl
Acetophen
Acetosal
Acetosalin
Acetylin
Acetylsalicylate
Acetylsalicylic acid
Acetyonyl
Acetysal
Acetysalicylic acid
Acylpyrin
Asatard
Aspergum
Aspirdrops
Aspirin
Benaspir
Bialpirinia
Bufferin
Caprin
Cardioaspirina
Easprin
Ecolen
Ecotrin
Empirin
Endosprin
Endydol
O-(acetyloxy)benzoate
O-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid
O-acetoxybenzoate
O-acetoxybenzoic acid
O-acetylsalicylic acid
O-carboxyphenyl acetate
Persistin
Pharmacin
Polopiryna
Premaspin
Rheumintabletten
Rhodine
Salcetogen
Saletin
Salicylic acid acetate
Salospir
Solprin
Solprin acid
Solpyron
Tasprin
Temperal
Toldex
Triaminicin
Acetylsalicylsaeure
Acide 2-(acetyloxy)benzoique
Acide acetylsalicylique
Acido acetilsalicilico
Acidum acetylsalicylicum
Asa
Azetylsalizylsaeure
2-acetoxybenzenecarboxylate
O-acetylsalicylate
O-carboxyphenyl acetic acid
Salicylate acetate
Salicylic acid acetic acid


Acetic acid

Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical that is used in the production of plastic soft drink bottles, photographic film; and polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, as well as many synthetic fibres and fabrics. In households diluted acetic acid is often used as a cleaning agent. In the food industry acetic acid is used as an acidity regulator. The acetyl group, derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to the biochemistry of virtually all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. However, the concentration of free acetic acid in cells is kept at a low level to avoid disrupting the control of the pH of the cell contents. Acetic acid is produced and excreted by certain bacteria, notably the Acetobacter genus and Clostridium acetobutylicum. These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs, water, and soil, and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and some other foods spoil. Acetic acid is also a component of the vaginal lubrication of humans and other primates, where it appears to serve as a mild antibacterial agent.

Acetate
Ethanoate
Ethanoic acid
Ethylate
Ethylic acid
Glacial acetate
Glacial acetic acid
Kyselina octova
Methanecarboxylate
Methanecarboxylic acid
Vinegar
Vinegar acid
Acide acetique
Acoh
Ch3-cooh
Ch3co2h
E 260
E-260
E260
Essigsaeure
Ethoic acid
Hoac
Ins no. 260
Meco2h
Mecooh
Ethoate


Tretinoin

all-trans-Retinoic acid (ATRA) is an isomer of retinoic acid, the oxidized form of vitamin A. Retinoic acid functions in determining position along embryonic anterior/posterior axis in chordates. It acts through Hox genes, which ultimately controls anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages (PMID: 17495912). It is an important regulator of gene expression during growth and development, and in neoplasms. As a drug, all-trans-retinoic acid is known as tretinoin. Tretinoin is derived from maternal vitamin A and is essential for normal growth and embryonic development. An excess of tretinoin can be teratogenic. Tretinoin is used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne vulgaris, and several other skin diseases. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia (leukemia, promyelocytic, acute).


acrolein

Acrolein (systematic name: propenal) is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde. It is a colourless liquid with a piercing, disagreeable, acrid smell. The smell of burnt fat (as when cooking oil is heated to its smoke point) is caused by glycerol in the burning fat breaking down into acrolein. It is produced industrially from propylene and mainly used as a biocide and a building block to other chemical compounds, such as the amino acid methionine. Acrolein is used as an etherification agent in the preparation of modified food starches. Acrolein is an herbicide and algicide used in water treatment. It is produced by microorganisms, e.g. Clostridium perfringens. Acrolein is a relatively electrophilic compound and a reactive one, hence its high toxicity. It is a good Michael acceptor, hence its useful reaction with thiols. It forms acetals readily, a prominent one being the spirocycle derived from pentaerythritol, diallylidene pentaerythritol. Acrolein participates in many Diels-Alder reactions, even with itself. Via Diels-Alder reactions, it is a precursor to some commercial fragrances, including lyral, norbornene-2-carboxaldehyde, and myrac aldehyde. Acrolein is toxic and is a strong irritant for the skin, eyes, and nasal passages. The main metabolic pathway for acrolein is the alkylation of glutathione. The WHO suggests a 'tolerable oral acrolein intake' of 7.5 mg/day per kilogram of body weight. Although acrolein occurs in French fries, the levels are only a few micrograms per kilogram.

2-propen-1-one
2-propenal
2-propenaldehyde
Acquinite
Acraldehyde
Acrolein
Acroleina
Acrylaldehyde
Acrylic aldehyde
Aldehyde, acrylic
Aldehyde, allyl
Aldehyde, ethylene
Allyl aldehyde
Aqualin
Aqualine
Biocide
Ch2=chcho
Crolean
Ethylene aldehyde
Magnacide
Magnacide h
Magnacide h and b
Papite
Prop-2-en-1-al
Prop-2-enal
Propenal
Propenaldehyde
Propylene aldehyde
Slimicide
Trans-acrolein formylethylene


Tetrahydrobiopterin or BH4 is a cofactor in the synthesis of nitric oxide. In fact it is used by all three human nitric-oxide synthases (NOS) eNOS, nNOS, and iNOS as well as the enzyme glyceryl-ether monooxygenase. It is also essential in the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine by the enzyme phenylalanine-4-hydroxylase; the conversion of tyrosine to L-dopa by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase; and conversion of tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan via tryptophan hydroxylase. Specifically, tetrahydrobiopterin is a cofactor for tryptophan 5-hydroxylase 1, tyrosine 3-monooxygenase, and phenylalanine hydroxylase all of which are essential for the formation of the neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline. Tetrahydrobiopterin has been proposed to be involved in promotion of neurotransmitter release in the brain and the regulation of human melanogenesis. A defect in BH4 production and/or a defect in the enzyme dihydropteridine reductase (DHPR) causes phenylketonuria type IV, as well as dopa-responsive dystonias. BH4 is also implicated in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and depression. Tetrahydrobiopterin is present in probably every cell or tissue of higher animals. On the other hand, most bacteria, fungi and plants do not synthesize tetrahydrobiopterin. -- Wikipedia.


Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is essential to catalyze the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine by phenylalanine hydroxylase. During this physiological reaction, the oxidation of BH4 creates 4a-hydroxytetrahydropterin intermediates and hydrogen peroxide is formed. The hydrogen peroxide and the hydroxytetrahydropterin can both derive from alternate routes of breakdown of a common precursor, the corresponding 4a-hydroperoxytetrahydropterin. (PMID 8323303).


Water

Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it is actually slightly blue in color. It covers 71% of Earth's surface. Current estimates suggest that there are 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (330 million m3) of it available on Earth, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the oceans (saltwater) and polar ice caps, but it is also present as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, lakes, and sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes. Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH-) to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4. (Wikipedia).

Dihydrogen oxide
Steam
[oh2]
Acqua
Agua
Aqua
Bound water
Dihydridooxygen
Eau
H2o
Hoh
Hydrogen hydroxide
Wasser


hydron

Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes.  Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Under aqueous conditions found in biochemistry, hydrogen ions exist as the hydrated form hydronium, H3O+, but these are often still referred to as hydrogen ions or even protons by biochemists. [WikiPedia])


Oxygen

Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium and the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9% of the volume of air. All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of O2 is produced from water by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration for all living organisms. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. For animals, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable for cardiac viability and function. To meet this demand, an adult human, at rest, inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. At a resting pulse rate, the heart consumes approximately 8-15 ml O2/min/100 g tissue. This is significantly more than that consumed by the brain (approximately 3 ml O2/min/100 g tissue) and can increase to more than 70 ml O2/min/100 g myocardial tissue during vigorous exercise. As a general rule, mammalian heart muscle cannot produce enough energy under anaerobic conditions to maintain essential cellular processes; thus, a constant supply of oxygen is indispensable to sustain cardiac function and viability. However, the role of oxygen and oxygen-associated processes in living systems is complex, and they and can be either beneficial or contribute to cardiac dysfunction and death (through reactive oxygen species). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of oxygen-derived free radicals that are produced in mammalian cells under normal and pathologic conditions. Many ROS, such as the superoxide anion (O2-)and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), act within blood vessels, altering mechanisms mediating mechanical signal transduction and autoregulation of cerebral blood flow. Reactive oxygen species are believed to be involved in cellular signaling in blood vessels in both normal and pathologic states. The major pathway for the production of ROS is by way of the one-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to form an oxygen radical, the superoxide anion (O2-). Within the vasculature there are several enzymatic sources of O2-, including xanthine oxidase, the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and nitric oxide (NO) synthases. Studies in recent years, however, suggest that the major contributor to O2- levels in vascular cells is the membrane-bound enzyme NADPH-oxidase. Produced O2- can react with other radicals, such as NO, or spontaneously dismutate to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In cells, the latter reaction is an important pathway for normal O2- breakdown and is usually catalyzed by the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Once formed, H2O2 can undergo various reactions, both enzymatic and nonenzymatic. The antioxidant enzymes catalase and glutathione peroxidase act to limit ROS accumulation within cells by breaking down H2O2 to H2O. Metabolism of H2O2 can also produce other, more damaging ROS. For example, the endogenous enzyme myeloperoxidase uses H2O2 as a substrate to form the highly reactive compound hypochlorous acid. Alternatively, H2O2 can undergo Fenton or Haber-Weiss chemistry, reacting with Fe2+/Fe3+ ions to form toxic hydroxyl radicals (-.OH). (PMID: 17027622, 15765131).

Dioxygen
Molecular oxygen
O2
Oxygen
Oxygen molecule
[oo]
Dioxygene
Disauerstoff
E 948
E-948
E948


succinyl-CoA

Succinyl-CoA is an important intermediate in the citric acid cycle, where it is synthesized from α-Ketoglutarate by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.4.2) through decarboxylation, and is converted into succinate through the hydrolytic release of coenzyme A by succinyl-CoA synthetase (EC 6.2.1.5). Succinyl-CoA may be an end product of peroxisomal beta-oxidation of dicarboxylic fatty acids; the identification of an apparently specific succinyl-CoA thioesterase (ACOT4, EC 3.1.2.3, hydrolyzes succinyl-CoA) in peroxisomes strongly suggests that succinyl-CoA is formed in peroxisomes. Acyl-CoA thioesterases (ACOTs) are a family of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the CoA esters of various lipids to the free acids and coenzyme A, thereby regulating levels of these compounds. (PMID: 16141203).

Coa s-(hydrogen succinate)
Coa s-succinate
Coenzyme a s-(hydrogen succinate)
Coenzyme a s-succinate
S-(hydrogen butanedioate
S-(hydrogen butanedioate) coa
S-(hydrogen butanedioate) coenzyme a
S-(hydrogen butanedioic acid
S-succinoylcoenzyme a
Suc-co-a
Suc-coa
Succ-coa
Succ-coenzyme a
Succ-s-coa
Succ-s-coenzyme a
Succ-s-coenzyme-a
Succ-coenzyme-a
Succino-1-yl-coenzyme a
Succinyl coa
Succinyl coenzyme a
Succinyl-s-coa
Succinyl-s-coenzyme a
Succinyl-s-coenzyme-a
Succinylcoenzyme-a
Succinylcoenzyme a


Adomet

S-Adenosylmethionine (CAS: 29908-03-0), also known as SAM or AdoMet, is a physiologic methyl radical donor involved in enzymatic transmethylation reactions and present in all living organisms. It possesses anti-inflammatory activity and has been used in the treatment of chronic liver disease (From Merck, 11th ed). S-Adenosylmethionine is a natural substance present in the cells of the body. It plays a crucial biochemical role by donating a one-carbon methyl group in a process called transmethylation. S-Adenosylmethionine, formed from the reaction of L-methionine and adenosine triphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, is the methyl-group donor in the biosynthesis of both DNA and RNA nucleic acids, phospholipids, proteins, epinephrine, melatonin, creatine, and other molecules.


ATP

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial. (PMID: 15490415, 15129319, 14707763, 14696970, 11157473).


Glycine

Glycine is a simple, nonessential amino acid, although experimental animals show reduced growth on low-glycine diets. The average adult ingests 3 to 5 grams of glycine daily. Glycine is involved in the body's production of DNA, phospholipids and collagen, and in release of energy. Glycine levels are effectively measured in plasma in both normal patients and those with inborn errors of glycine metabolism. (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/) Nonketotic hyperglycinaemia (OMIM 606899) is an autosomal recessive condition caused by deficient enzyme activity of the glycine cleavage enzyme system (EC 2.1.1.10). The glycine cleavage enzyme system comprises four proteins: P-, T-, H- and L-proteins (EC 1.4.4.2, EC 2.1.2.10 and EC 1.8.1.4 for P-, T- and L-proteins). Mutations have been described in the GLDC (OMIM 238300), AMT (OMIM 238310), and GCSH (OMIM 238330) genes encoding the P-, T-, and H-proteins respectively. The glycine cleavage system catalyses the oxidative conversion of glycine into carbon dioxide and ammonia, with the remaining one-carbon unit transferred to folate as methylenetetrahydrofolate. It is the main catabolic pathway for glycine and it also contributes to one-carbon metabolism. Patients with a deficiency of this enzyme system have increased glycine in plasma, urine and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with an increased CSF: plasma glycine ratio. (PMID 16151895).

2-aminoacetate
2-aminoacetic acid
Aciport
Amino-acetate
Amino-acetic acid
Aminoacetate
Aminoacetic acid
Aminoethanoate
Aminoethanoic acid
Glicoamin
Glycocoll
Glycolixir
Glycosthene
Gyn-hydralin
Padil
Aminoessigsaeure
G
Gly
Glycin
Glykokoll
Glyzin
H2n-ch2-cooh
Hgly
Leimzucker


Protoporphyrin

Protoporphyrins are tetrapyrroles containing 4 methyl, 2 propionic, and 2 vinyl side chains. Protoporphyrin is produced by oxidation of the methylene bridge of protoporphyrinogen. Protoporphyrin IX is the only naturally occurring isomer; it is an intermediate in heme biosynthesis, combining with ferrous iron to form protoheme IX, the heme prosthetic group of hemoglobin. Protoporphyrin IX is created by the enzyme protoporphyrinogen oxidase. The enzyme ferrochelatase converts it into heme. Protoporphyrin IX naturally occurs in small amounts in feces. Protoporphyrin IX is also responsible for the brown pigment (ooporphyrin) of birds' eggs. Protoporphyrin IX is used as a branch point in the biosynthetic pathway leading to heme (by insertion of iron) and chlorophylls (by insertion of Mg and further side-chain transformation). Protoporphyrin IX can be used to treat liver disorders, mainly as the sodium salt. Under certain conditions, protoporphyrin IX can act as a neurotoxin, a phototoxin, and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A phototoxin causes cell damage upon exposure to light. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). In particular, it is accumulated and excreted excessively in the feces in acute intermittent porphyria, protoporphyria, and variegate porphyria. There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).


protoporphyrinogen

Protoporphyrinogen IX is an intermediate in heme biosynthesis. It is a porphyrinogen in which two pyrrole rings each have one methyl and one propionate side chain, and the other two pyrrole rings each have one methyl and one vinyl side chain. Fifteen isomers are possible but only one, type IX, occurs naturally. Protoporphyrinogen is produced by oxidative decarboxylation of coproporphyrinogen. Under certain conditions, protoporphyrinogen IX can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). In particular, protoporphyrinogen IX is accumulated and excreted excessively in the feces in acute intermittent porphyria, protoporphyria, and variegate porphyria. There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).

5,10,15,20,22,24-hexahydro protoporphyrin ix deriv.


uroporphyrin III

Uroporphyrin is the porphyrin produced by oxidation of the methylene bridges in uroporphyrinogen. Uroporphyrins have four acetic acid and four propionic acid side chains attached to their pyrrole rings. The enzyme uroporphyrinogen I synthase catalyzes the formation of hydroxymethylbilane from four molecules of porphobilinogen. Uroporphyrinogen III cosynthase then catalyzes the conversion of hydroxymethylbilane into uroporphyrinogen III. Otherwise, hydroxymethylbilane cyclizes nonenzymatically to form uroporphyrinogen I. Uroporphyrinogen I and III yield their respective uroporphyrins via autooxidation or their respective coproporphyrinogens via decarboxylation. Excessive amounts of uroporphyrin I are excreted in congenital erythropoietic porphyria, and both uroporphyrin I and uroporphyrin III are excreted in porphyria cutanea tarda. Uroporphyrin I and III are the most common isomers. Under certain conditions, uroporphyrin III can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).


uroporphyrinogen III

Uroporphyrinogens are porphyrinogen variants in which each pyrrole ring has one acetate side chain and one propionate side chain; it is formed by condensation 4 four molecules of porphobilinogen. 4 isomers are possible but only 2 commoly are found, types I and III. Uroporphyrinogen III is a functional intermediate in heme biosynthesis while Uroporphyrinogen I is produced in an abortive side reaction.