Dopamine

Dopamine is a member of the catecholamine family of neurotransmitters in the brain and is a precursor to epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Dopamine is synthesized in the body (mainly by nervous tissue and adrenal glands) first by the hydration of the amino acid tyrosine to DOPA by tyrosine hydroxylase and then by the decarboxylation of DOPA by aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of receptors (dopamine receptors) mediates its action, which plays a major role in reward-motivated behaviour. Dopamine has many other functions outside the brain. In blood vessels, dopamine inhibits norepinephrine release and acts as a vasodilator (at normal concentrations); in the kidneys, it increases sodium excretion and urine output; in the pancreas, it reduces insulin production; in the digestive system, it reduces gastrointestinal motility and protects intestinal mucosa; and in the immune system, it reduces the activity of lymphocytes. Parkinson's disease, a degenerative condition causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by a loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra. There is evidence that schizophrenia involves altered levels of dopamine activity, and most antipsychotic drugs used to treat this are dopamine antagonists, which reduce dopamine activity. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, and addiction are also characterized by defects in dopamine production or metabolism. It has been suggested that animals derived their dopamine-synthesizing machinery from bacteria via horizontal gene transfer that may have occurred relatively late in evolutionary time. This is perhaps a result of the symbiotic incorporation of bacteria into eukaryotic cells that gave rise to mitochondria. Dopamine is elevated in the urine of people who consume bananas. When present in sufficiently high levels, dopamine can be a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural tissue. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of dopamine are associated with neuroblastoma, Costello syndrome, leukemia, phaeochromocytoma, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency, and Menkes disease (MNK). High levels of dopamine can lead to hyperactivity, insomnia, agitation and anxiety, depression, delusions, excessive salivation, nausea, and digestive problems.


Iron

Iron is a metallic element found in certain minerals, in nearly all soils, and in mineral waters. Iron is required for life. It exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. It can be found primarily in blood and it is an essential constituent of hemoglobin, cytochrome, and other components of respiratory enzyme systems. Its chief functions are in the transport of oxygen to tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular oxidation mechanisms. Depletion of iron stores may result in iron-deficiency anemia. Iron is used to build up the blood in anemia. In humans, iron is involved in several metabolic pathways, some of which include the rofecoxib pathway, magnesium salicylate action pathway, etodolac pathway, and diclofenac pathway. Iron is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (APRT), porphyria variegata (PV), adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency, and AICA-ribosiduria. The major activity of supplemental iron is in the prevention and treatment of iron-deficiency anemia. Iron has putative immune-enhancing, anticarcinogenic, and cognition-enhancing activities. Iron can be found in a number of food items such as chinese water chestnut, hyssop, daikon radish, and peppermint, which makes it a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.


Chondroitin sulfate

Chondroitin 4-sulfate is a derivative of chondroitin which has a sulfate moiety esterified to the galactosamine moiety of chondroitin. Chondroitin sulfate A, or chondroitin 4-sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate C, or chondroitin 6-sulfate, have the sulfate esterified in the 4- and 6-positions, respectively. Chondroitin sulfate B (beta heparin; DERMATAN SULFATE) is a misnomer and this compound is not a true chondroitin sulfate. An example structure is given, and this Chondroiton sulfate is a polymer that can contain up to 100 individual sugars.

Chondroitin 4'-sulfate
Chondroitin sulfate a
Chondroitin 4'-sulphate
Chondroitin sulphate a


zymosterol

Zymosterol is the precursor of cholesterol and is found in the plasma membrane. zymosterol circulates within the cells. The structural features of zymosterol provided optimal substrate acceptability. In human fibroblasts, zymosterol is converted to cholesterol solely in the rough ER. Little or no zymosterol or cholesterol accumulates in the rough ER in vivo. Newly synthesized zymosterol moves to the plasma membrane without a detectable lag and with a half-time of 9 min, about twice as fast as cholesterol. The pool of radiolabeled zymosterol in the plasma membrane turns over rapidly, faster than does intracellular cholesterol. Thus, plasma membrane zymosterol is not stagnant. [3H]Zymosterol pulsed into intact cells is initially found in the plasma membrane. (PMID: 1939176).


Liothyronine

Liothyronine is a T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3. Mildly toxic by ingestion. An experimental teratogen. Experimental reproductive effects. When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of NOx, I(-), and Cl(-). (Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials).


N-carbamoyl-beta-alanine

Ureidopropionic acid is an intermediate in the metabolism of uracil. More specifically it is a breakdown product of dihydrouracil and is produced by the enzyme dihydropyrimidase. It is further decomposed to beta-alanine via the enzyme beta-ureidopropionase. Ureidopropionic acid is essentially a urea derivative of beta-alanine. High levels of Ureidopropionic acid are found in individuals with beta-ureidopropionase (UP) deficiency [PMID: 11675655]. Enzyme deficiencies in pyrimidine metabolism are associated with a risk for severe toxicity against the antineoplastic agent 5-fluorouracil.

3-(carbamoylamino)propanoate
3-(carbamoylamino)propanoic acid
3-ureido-propionate
3-ureidopropanoate
3-ureidopropanoic acid
3-ureidopropionate
3-ureidopropionic acid
Carbamoyl-b-ala-oh
Carbamoyl-beta-ala-oh
N-(aminocarbonyl)-'b-alanine
N-(aminocarbonyl)-b-alanine
N-(aminocarbonyl)-beta-alanine
N-carbamoyl-b-alanine
N-carbamoyl-beta-alanine
N-carbamyl-b-alanine
N-carbamyl-beta-alanine
Ureidopropionate
Ureidopropionic acid
Beta-ureidopropionate
Beta-ureidopropionic acid
3-[(aminocarbonyl)amino]propanoic acid
Ureidopropanoic acid
3-[(aminocarbonyl)amino]propanoate
N-carbamoyl-β-alanine
B-ureidopropionate
B-ureidopropionic acid
β-ureidopropionate
β-ureidopropionic acid
N-(aminocarbonyl)-β-alanine
Ureidopropanoate


Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2. With an atomic weight of 1.00794, hydrogen is the lightest element. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope Deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope Tritium. Hydrogen is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry, in which many reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. Oxidation of hydrogen, in the sense of removing its electron, formally gives H+, containing no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Bronsted-Lowry theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton H+ cannot exist in solution because of its strong tendency to attach itself to atoms or molecules with electrons. However, the term 'proton' is used loosely to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen, denoted H+. H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.

Dihydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen cation
Hydrogen gas
Hydrogen ion
Hydronium
Proton
E 949
E-949
E949
H2
Molecular hydrogen


Histamine

Histamine, also known as eramin or ceplene, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 2-arylethylamines. These are primary amines that have the general formula RCCNH2, where R is an organic group. Histamine exists as a solid, soluble (in water), and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Histamine has been found throughout most human tissues, and has also been detected in most biofluids, including feces, saliva, urine, and blood. Within the cell, histamine is primarily located in the myelin sheath. In humans, histamine is involved in the phenbenzamine H1-antihistamine action pathway, the omeprazole action pathway, the levocetirizine H1-antihistamine action pathway, and the propiomazine H1-antihistamine action pathway. Histamine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the thiazinamium H1-antihistamine action pathway, the metiamide action pathway, the quetiapine H1-antihistamine action pathway, and the histidinemia pathway. Outside of the human body, histamine can be found in a number of food items such as daikon radish, jicama, caraway, and japanese walnut. This makes histamine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Histamine is an amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of histidine. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter.


PS(16:0/16:0) is a phosphatidylserine. It is a glycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylserine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. As is the case with diacylglycerols, phosphatidylserines can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached to the C-1 and C-2 positions. PS(16:0/16:0), in particular, consists of two hexadecanoyl chains at positions C-1 and C-2. Phosphatidylserine or 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine is distributed widely among animals, plants and microorganisms. Phosphatidylserine is an acidic (anionic) phospholipid with three ionizable groups, i.e. the phosphate moiety, the amino group and the carboxyl function. As with other acidic lipids, it exists in nature in salt form, but it has a high propensity to chelate to calcium via the charged oxygen atoms of both the carboxyl and phosphate moieties, modifying the conformation of the polar head group. This interaction may be of considerable relevance to the biological function of phosphatidylserine. While most phospholipids have a saturated fatty acid on C-1 and an unsaturated fatty acid on C-2 of the glycerol backbone, the fatty acid distribution at the C-1 and C-2 positions of glycerol within phospholipids is continually in flux, owing to phospholipid degradation and the continuous phospholipid remodeling that occurs while these molecules are in membranes. Phosphatidylserines typically carry a net charge of -1 at physiological pH. They mostly have palmitic or stearic acid on carbon 1 and a long chain unsaturated fatty acid (e.g. 18:2, 20:4 and 22:6) on carbon 2. PS biosynthesis involves an exchange reaction of serine for ethanolamine in PE.


Deamido-Nad+

Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate, (NAADP), is a Ca2+-mobilizing second messenger synthesized in response to extracellular stimuli. NAADP binds to and opens Ca2+ channels on intracellular organelles, thereby increasing the intracellular Ca2+ concentration which, in turn, modulates a variety of cellular processes. Structurally, it is a dinucleotide that only differs from the house-keeping enzyme cofactor, NADP by a hydroxyl group (replacing the nicotinamide amino group) and yet this minor modification converts it into the most potent Ca2+-mobilizing second messenger yet described.


Acrylic Acid

Polyacrylic acid, sodium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").Acrylic acid belongs to the family of Enones. These are compounds containing the enone functional group, with the structure RC(=O)CR'.

Acroleic acid
Acrylate
Acrylic acid
Ethylenecarboxylic acid
Prop-2-enoic acid
Propene acid
Propenoate
Propenoic acid
Vinylformic acid
Polyacrylic acid
Carbopol 1342
Polyacrylate


4-Glutathionyl cyclophosphamide

4-Glutathionyl cyclophosphamide is a metabolite of cyclophosphamide. Cyclophosphamide ( trade names Endoxan, Cytoxan, Neosar, Procytox, Revimmune), also known as cytophosphane, is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent, from the oxazophorines group. An alkylating agent adds an alkyl group (CnH2n+1) to DNA. It attaches the alkyl group to the guanine base of DNA, at the number 7 nitrogen atom of the imidazole ring. It is used to treat various types of cancer and some autoimmune disorders. (Wikipedia)


PQQ Cofactor

Enzymes containing PQQ are called quinoproteins. PQQ and quinoproteins play a role in the redox metabolism and structural integrity of cells and tissues [PMID:2558842]. It was reported that aminoadipate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (AASDH) might also use PQQ as a cofactor, suggesting a possibility that PQQ is a vitamin in mammals. [PMID:12712191].


SAICAR

SAICAR (or (S)-2-[5-amino-1-(5-phospho-D-ribosyl)imidazole-4-carboxamido]succinate) is a substrate for the multifunctional protein ADE2. SAICAR is an intermediate in purine metabolism. SAICAR is converted from 5-amino-1-(5-phospho-D-ribosyl) imidazole-4-carboxylate via phosphoribosylaminoimidazole-succinocarboxamide synthase (EC: 6.3.2.6) or SAICAR synthase. This enzyme catalyses the seventh step out of ten in the biosynthesis of purine nucleotides. The appearance of succinylaminoimidazolecarboxamide riboside (SAICAriboside) and succinyladenosine (S-Ado) in cerebrospinal fluid, in urine, and, to a lesser extent, in plasma is characteristic of a heritable deficiency known as adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency. Adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency is responsible for a range of symptoms that involve psychomotor retardation, often accompanied by epileptic seizures, and autistic features. When present in sufficiently high levels, SAICAR can act as an oncometabolite, a metabotoxin, and an acidogen. An oncometabolite is a compound that promotes tumour growth and survival. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. As an oncometabolite, high levels of SAICAR stimulate pyruvate kinase isoform M2 and promote cancer cell survival in glucose-limited conditions such as aerobic glycolysis (PMID: 23086999). As an organic acid, SAICAR is associated with acidosis. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development.


anserine

This dipeptide is normally absent from human tissues and body fluids, and its appearance there is an artifact of diet (Proc Soc Pediatr Res 134, 1967.) and serum carnosinase deficiency. (OMIM 212200) Anserine is present in the skeletal muscle of birds and certain species of mammals, notably the rabbit, rat, and whale, contains anserine. (Proc Soc Pediatr Res 134, 1967) The methyl group of anserine is added to carnosine by the enzyme S-adenosylmethionine: carnosine N-methyltransferase. (J Biol Chem 237:1207, 1962.).


Levothyroxine

The thyronamines function via some unknown mechanism to inhibit neuronal activity; this plays an important role in the hibernation cycles of mammals. One effect of administering the thyronamines is a severe drop in body temperature. Iodide is actively absorbed from the bloodstream and concentrated in the thyroid follicles. (If there is a deficiency of dietary iodine, the thyroid enlarges in an attempt to trap more iodine, resulting in goitre.) Via a reaction with the enzyme thyroperoxidase, iodine is covalently bound to tyrosine residues in the thyroglobulin molecules, forming monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT). Linking two moieties of DIT produces thyroxine. Combining one particle of MIT and one particle of DIT produces triiodothyronine. Both T3 and T4 are used to treat thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism). They are both absorbed well by the gut, so can be given orally. Levothyroxine, the most commonly used synthetic thyroxine form, is a stereoisomer of physiological thyroxine, which is metabolized more slowly and hence usually only needs once-daily administration. Natural desiccated thyroid hormones, which are derived from pig thyroid glands, are a "natural" hypothyroid treatment containing 20% T3 and traces of T2, T1 and calcitonin. this plays an important role in the hibernation cycles of mammals. One effect of administering the thyronamines is a severe drop in body temperature. The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (monoiodotyrosine) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (diiodotyrosine) in the thyroglobulin. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form triiodothyronine which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism. The thyronamines function via some unknown mechanism to inhibit neuronal activity.


Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble compound that was discovered in 1930s during nutrition studies on rats. The vitamin was named pyridoxine to indicate its structural homology to pyridine. Later it was shown that vitamin B6 could exist in two other, slightly different, chemical forms, termed pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. All three forms of vitamin B6 are precursors of an activated compound known as pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP), which plays a vital role as the cofactor of a large number of essential enzymes in the human body. Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. The three major forms of vitamin B6 are pyridoxine (also known as pyridoxol), pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine, which are all converted in the liver to pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP) a cofactor in many reactions of amino acid metabolism. PLP also is necessary for the enzymatic reaction governing the release of glucose from glycogen.

Pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate
Pyridoxamine 5-phosphate
Pyridoxamine 5-phosphoric acid
Pyridoxamine 5'-phosphoric acid


Kynurenic Acid

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is a well-known endogenous antagonist of the glutamate ionotropic excitatory amino acid receptors N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), alphaamino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid and kainate receptors and of the nicotine cholinergic subtype alpha 7 receptors. KYNA neuroprotective and anticonvulsive activities have been demonstrated in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Because of KYNA's neuromodulatory character, its involvement has been speculatively linked to the pathogenesis of a number of neurological conditions including those in the ageing process. Different patterns of abnormalities in various stages of KYNA metabolism in the CNS have been reported in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. In HIV-1-infected patients and in patients with Lyme neuroborreliosis a marked rise of KYNA metabolism was seen. In the ageing process KYNA metabolism in the CNS of rats shows a characteristic pattern of changes throughout the life span. A marked increase of the KYNA content in the CNS occurs before the birth, followed by a dramatic decline on the day of birth. A low activity was seen during ontogenesis, and a slow and progressive enhancement occurs during maturation and ageing. This remarkable profile of KYNA metabolism alterations in the mammalian brain has been suggested to result from the development of the organisation of neuronal connections and synaptic plasticity, development of receptor recognition sites, maturation and ageing. There is significant evidence that KYNA can improve cognition and memory, but it has also been demonstrated that it interferes with working memory. Impairment of cognitive function in various neurodegenerative disorders is accompanied by profound reduction and/or elevation of KYNA metabolism. The view that enhancement of CNS KYNA levels could underlie cognitive decline is supported by the increased KYNA metabolism in Alzheimer's disease, by the increased KYNA metabolism in down's syndrome and the enhancement of KYNA function during the early stage of Huntington's disease. Kynurenic acid is the only endogenous N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist identified up to now, that mediates glutamatergic hypofunction. Schizophrenia is a disorder of dopaminergic neurotransmission, but modulation of the dopaminergic system by glutamatergic neurotransmission seems to play a key role. Despite the NMDA receptor antagonism, kynurenic acid also blocks, in lower doses, the nicotinergic acetycholine receptor, i.e., increased kynurenic acid levels can explain psychotic symptoms and cognitive deterioration. Kynurenic acid levels are described to be higher in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in critical central nervous system (CNS) regions of schizophrenics as compared to controls. (PMID: 17062375, 16088227).


[(4-{[(2-{[2-(formyloxy)acetyl]oxy}ethoxy)(hydroxy)phosphoryl]oxy}-2,3,5,6-tetrahydroxycyclohexyl)oxy]phosphonic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety. [(4-{[(2-{[2-(formyloxy)acetyl]oxy}ethoxy)(hydroxy)phosphoryl]oxy}-2,3,5,6-tetrahydroxycyclohexyl)oxy]phosphonic acid is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa).


Glycinamide Ribonucleotide

Glycinamidoribotide conversion to N-formylglycinamide ribonucleotide is the third reaction of the de novo purine biosynthesis, a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme Glycinamide ribonucleotide transformylase (EC 2.1.2.2), with concomitant conversion of 10-formyltetrahydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate. (PMID: 9143358). Glycineamideribotide formation is stimulated by Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) via activation of Glc-6-P-dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.49). (PMID: 4366083).


Adefovir Dipivoxil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug.Adefovir dipivoxil, previously called bis-POM PMEA, with trade names Preveon and Hepsera, is an orally-administered nucleotide analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor (ntRTI) used for treatment of hepatitis B. It is a failed treatment for HIV. [Wikipedia]Adefovir dipivoxil is a prodrug of adefovir. Adefovir is an acyclic nucleotide analog of adenosine monophosphate which is phosphorylated to the active metabolite adefovir diphosphate by cellular kinases. Adefovir diphosphate inhibits HBV DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase) by competing with the natural substrate deoxyadenosine triphosphate and by causing DNA chain termination after its incorporation into viral DNA. The inhibition constant (Ki) for adefovir diphosphate for HBV DNA polymerase was 0.1 μM. Adefovir diphosphate is a weak inhibitor of human DNA polymerases alpha and gamma with Ki values of 1.18 μM and 0.97μM, respectively.

Adv
Adefovir
Adefovir pivoxil
Adefovirdipivoxl
Bis-pom pmea
Gs-840
Pmea
Adefovir dipivoxil
Hepsera


Norepinephrine

Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.


The anion, the salts, and the esters of pyrophosphoric acid are called pyrophosphates. The pyrophosphate anion is abbreviated PPi and is formed by the hydrolysis of ATP into AMP in cells. This hydrolysis is called pyrophosphorolysis. The pyrophosphate anion has the structure P2O74-, and is an acid anhydride of phosphate. It is unstable in aqueous solution and rapidly hydrolyzes into inorganic phosphate. Pyrophosphate is an osteotoxin (arrests bone development) and an arthritogen (promotes arthritis). It is also a metabotoxin (an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health affects at chronically high levels). Chronically high levels of pyrophosphate are associated with hypophosphatasia. Hypophosphatasia (also called deficiency of alkaline phosphatase or phosphoethanolaminuria) is a rare, and sometimes fatal, metabolic bone disease. Hypophosphatasia is associated with a molecular defect in the gene encoding tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (TNSALP). TNSALP is an enzyme that is tethered to the outer surface of osteoblasts and chondrocytes. TNSALP hydrolyzes several substances, including inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), a major form of vitamin B6. When TSNALP is low, inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) accumulates outside of cells and inhibits the formation of hydroxyapatite, one of the main components of bone, causing rickets in infants and children and osteomalacia (soft bones) in adults. Vitamin B6 must be dephosphorylated by TNSALP before it can cross the cell membrane. Vitamin B6 deficiency in the brain impairs synthesis of neurotransmitters which can cause seizures. In some cases, a build-up of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals in the joints can cause pseudogout.

(4-)diphosphoric acid ion
(p2o74-)diphosphate
Diphosphate
Diphosphoric acid
Ppi
Pyrometaphosphate
Pyrophosphate
Pyrophosphate tetraanion
Pyrophosphate(4-) ion
[o3popo3](4-)
Diphosphat
P2o7(4-)
Pyrophosphat
Pyrophosphate ion
Phosphonato phosphoric acid
Pyrophosphoric acid
Pyrophosphoric acid ion


4,4-Dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8,24-dien-3-b-ol (14-demethyllanosterol) is an intermediate in sterol biosynthesis. In particular, it is an intermediate in the conversion of lanosterol to zymosterol. 4,4-Dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8,24-dien-3-b-ol is a substrate for C-4 methyl sterol oxidase, NAD(P)-dependent steroid dehydrogenase, Cytochrome P450 51A1 and Delta(14)-sterol reductase.

4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha -cholesta-8,24-dien-3 beta -ol


Phosphate ion

Phosphate is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry, biogeochemistry and ecology. Phosphate (Pi) is an essential component of life. In biological systems, phosphorus is found as a free phosphate ion in solution and is called inorganic phosphate, to distinguish it from phosphates bound in various phosphate esters. Inorganic phosphate is generally denoted Pi and at physiological (neutral) pH primarily consists of a mixture of HPO2-4 and H2PO-4 ions. phosphates are most commonly found in the form of adenosine phosphates, (AMP, ADP and ATP) and in DNA and RNA and can be released by the hydrolysis of ATP or ADP. Similar reactions exist for the other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. Phosphoanhydride bonds in ADP and ATP, or other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates, contain high amounts of energy which give them their vital role in all living organisms. Phosphate must be actively transported into cells against its electrochemical gradient. In vertebrates, two unrelated families of Na+-dependent Pi transporters carry out this task. Remarkably, the two families transport different Pi species: whereas type II Na+/Pi cotransporters (SCL34) prefer divalent HPO4(2), type III Na+/Pi cotransporters (SLC20) transport monovalent H2PO4. The SCL34 family comprises both electrogenic and electroneutral members that are expressed in various epithelia and other polarized cells. Through regulated activity in apical membranes of the gut and kidney, they maintain body Pi homeostasis, and in salivary and mammary glands, liver, and testes they play a role in modulating the Pi content of luminal fluids. Phosphate levels in the blood play an important role in hormone signaling and in bone homeostasis. In classical endocrine regulation, low serum phosphate induces the renal production of the seco-steroid hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3).This active metabolite of vitamin D acts to restore circulating mineral (i.e. phosphate and calcium) levels by increasing absorption in the intestine, reabsorption in the kidney, and mobilization of calcium and phosphate from bone. Thus, chronic renal failure is associated with hyperparathyroidism, which in turn contributes to osteomalacia (softening of the bones). Another complication of chronic renal failure is hyperphosphatemia (low levels of phosphate in the blood). Hyperphosphatemia (excess levels of phosphate in the blood) is a prevalent condition in kidney dialysis patients and is associated with increased risk of mortality. Hypophosphatemia (hungry bone syndrome) has been associated to postoperative electrolyte aberrations and after parathyroidectomy. (PMID: 17581921, 11169009, 11039261, 9159312, 17625581)Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) has recently been recognized as a key mediator of phosphate homeostasis, its most notable effect being promotion of phosphate excretion. FGF-23 was discovered to be involved in diseases such as autosomal dominant hypophosphatemic rickets, X-linked hypophosphatemia, and tumor-induced osteomalacia in which phosphate wasting was coupled to inappropriately low levels of 1,25(OH)2D3. FGF-23 is regulated by dietary phosphate in humans. In particular it was found that phosphate restriction decreased FGF-23, and phosphate loading increased FGF-23.

Nfb orthophosphate
O-phosphoric acid
Ortho-phosphate
Orthophosphate (po43-)
Orthophosphate(3-)
Phosphate
Phosphate (po43-)
Phosphate anion(3-)
Phosphate ion (po43-)
Phosphate ion(3-)
Phosphate trianion
Phosphate(3-)
Phosphoric acid ion(3-)
Pi
[po4](3-)
Orthophosphate
Phosphate ion
Po4(3-)
Phosphoric acid
Orthophosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid ion


7,8-dihydroneopterin 3'-triphosphate

The biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) from dihydroneopterin triphosphate (NH2P3) was studied in human liver extract. The phosphate-eliminating enzyme (PEE) was purified approximately 750-fold. The conversion of NH2P3 to BH4 was catalyzed by this enzyme in the presence of partially purified sepiapterin reductase, Mg2+ and NADPH. The PEE is heat stable when heated at 80 degrees C for 5 min. It has a molecular weight of 63 000 daltons. One possible intermediate 6-(1'-hydroxy-2'-oxopropyl)5,6,7,8-tetrahydropterin(2'-oxo-tetrahydropte rin) was formed upon incubation of BH4 in the presence of sepiapterin reductase and NADP+ at pH 9.0. Reduction of this compound with NaBD4 yielded monodeutero threo and erythro-BH4, the deuterium was incorporated at the 2' position. This and the UV spectra were consistent with a 2'-oxo-tetrahydropterin structure. Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) catalyzed the reduction of BH2 to BH4 and was found to be specific for the pro-R-NADPH side. The sepiapterin reductase catalyzed the transfer of the pro-S hydrogen of NADPH during the reduction of sepiapterin to BH2. In the presence of crude liver extracts the conversion of NH2P3 to BH4 requires NADPH. Two deuterium atoms were incorporated from (4S-2H)NADHP in the 1' and 2' position of the BH4 side chain. Incorporation of one hydrogen from the solvent was found at position C(6). These results are consistent with the occurrence of an intramolecular redox exchange between the pteridine nucleus and the side chain and formation of 6-pyruvoyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydropterin(tetrahydro-1'-2'-dioxopterin) as intermediate. PMID: 3930838.


CID 25245041

N-Formylkynurenine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkyl-phenylketones. These are aromatic compounds containing a ketone substituted by one alkyl group, and a phenyl group. N-Formylkynurenine is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, N-formylkynurenine is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, N-formylkynurenine is involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathway. N-Formylkynurenine lays an improtant role in photobiological responses. The excited state of N-formylkynurenine react to produce hydroxyl radicals.


Risedronate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a bisphosphonate used to strengthen bone, treat or prevent osteoporosis, and treat Paget's disease of bone.The action of risedronate on bone tissue is based partly on its affinity for hydroxyapatite, which is part of the mineral matrix of bone. Risedronate also targets farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) synthase. Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (such as pamidronate, alendronate, risedronate, ibandronate and zoledronate) appear to act as analogues of isoprenoid diphosphate lipids, thereby inhibiting FPP synthase, an enzyme in the mevalonate pathway. Inhibition of this enzyme in osteoclasts prevents the biosynthesis of isoprenoid lipids (FPP and GGPP) that are essential for the post-translational farnesylation and geranylgeranylation of small GTPase signalling proteins. This activity inhibits osteoclast activity and reduces bone resorption and turnover. In postmenopausal women, it reduces the elevated rate of bone turnover, leading to, on average, a net gain in bone mass.

Risedronic acid
Ne-58095
Ridron
Risedronate


FAICAR

Phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide, also known as faicar, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-ribosyl-imidazolecarboxamides. These are organic compounds containing the imidazole ring linked to a ribose ring through a 1-2 bond. Phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide is primarily located in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide is involved in the azathioprine action pathway, the mercaptopurine action pathway, the thioguanine action pathway, and the purine metabolism pathway. Phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria), the gout or kelley-seegmiller syndrome pathway, myoadenylate deaminase deficiency, and adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency. Outside of the human body, phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide can be found in a number of food items such as kai-lan, apricot, cupuaçu, and pomes. This makes phosphoribosyl formamidocarboxamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. This compound is an intermediate in purine metabolism, where it is the byproduct of phosphoribosylaminoimidazolecarboxamide formyltransferase (EC 2.1.2.3) and IMP cyclohydrolase (EC 3.5.4.10). It is also a byproduct of Ligases (EC 6.3.4.-).


1D-myo-inositol 4-phosphate

D-Myo-inositol 4-phosphate, also known as inositol 4-phosphoric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety. D-Myo-inositol 4-phosphate is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, D-myo-inositol 4-phosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, D-myo-inositol 4-phosphate is involved in the inositol phosphate metabolism pathway and the inositol metabolism pathway. D-Myo-inositol 4-phosphate is a substrate for Inositol monophosphatase, Inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase and Inositol monophosphatase 2.

1d-myo-inositol 4-monophosphate
1d-myo-inositol 4-phosphate
D-myo-inositol-4-phosphate
D-myoinositol 4-phosphate
Inositol 4-phosphate
Myo-inositol 4-phosphate
D-myo-inositol 4-phosphate
1d-myo-inositol 4-monophosphoric acid
1d-myo-inositol 4-phosphoric acid
D-myo-inositol 4-phosphoric acid


Thiamine

Thiamine pyrophosphate is the active form of thiamine, and it serves as a cofactor for several enzymes involved primarily in carbohydrate catabolism. The enzymes are important in the biosynthesis of a number of cell constituents, including neurotransmitters, and for the production of reducing equivalents used in oxidant stress defenses and in biosyntheses and for synthesis of pentoses used as nucleic acid precursors. The chemical structure of TPP is that of an aromatic methylaminopyrimidine ring, linked via a methylene bridge to a methylthiazolium ring with a pyrophosphate group attached to a hydroxyethyl side chain. In non-enzymatic model studies it has been demonstrated that the thiazolium ring can catalyse reactions which are similar to those of TPP-dependent enzymes but several orders of magnitude slower. Using infrared and NMR spectrophotometry it has been shown that the dissociation of the proton from C2 of the thiazolium ring is necessary for catalysis; the abstraction of the proton leads to the formation of a carbanion (ylid) with the potential for a nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl group of the substrate. In all TPP-dependent enzymes the abstraction of the proton from the C2 atom is the first step in catalysis, which is followed by a nucleophilic attack of this carbanion on the substrate. Subsequent cleavage of a C-C bond releases the first product with formation of a second carbanion (2-greek small letter alpha-carbanion or enamine). The formation of this 2-greek small letter alpha-carbanion is the second feature of TPP catalysis common to all TPP-dependent enzymes. Depending on the enzyme and the substrate(s), the reaction intermediates and products differ. Methyl-branched fatty acids, as phytanic acid, undergo peroxisomal beta-oxidation in which they are shortened by 1 carbon atom. This process includes four steps: activation, 2-hydroxylation, thiamine pyrophosphate dependent cleavage and aldehyde dehydrogenation. In the third step, 2-hydroxy-3-methylacyl-CoA is cleaved in the peroxisomal matrix by 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase (2-HPCL), which uses thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) as cofactor. The thiamine pyrophosphate dependence of the third step is unique in peroxisomal mammalian enzymology. Human pathology due to a deficient alpha-oxidation is mostly linked to mutations in the gene coding for the second enzyme of the sequence, phytanoyl-CoA hydroxylase (EC 1.14.11.18). (PMID: 12694175, 11899071, 9924800).

Tpp
Thpp
Thaimine pyrophosphate
Thiamin diphosphate
Thiamin pyrophosphate
Thiamin-ppi
Thiamine diphosphate
Thiamine pyrophosphate
Thiamine-ppi
Thiamine-pyrophosphate
Thiamin diphosphoric acid
Thiamine(1+) diphosphoric acid
Thiamin pyrophosphoric acid
Thiamine diphosphoric acid


bis(beta-glucosyluronic acid)bilirubin

Bilirubin diglucuronide is a water soluble version of bilirubin. Conversion of bilirubin IX-alpha to a water-soluble form by disruption of the hydrogen bonds is essential for elimination by the liver and kidney. This is achieved by glucuronic acid conjugation of the propionic acid side chains of bilirubin. Bilirubin glucuronides are water-soluble and are readily excreted in bile. Bilirubin is primarily excreted in normal human bile as diglucuronide; unconjugated bilirubin accounts for only 1-4% of pigments in normal bile.


3alpha,7alpha,12alpha-Trihydroxy-5beta-cholestanoic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine, and the portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH, and consequently require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).


Pyridoxal phosphate

This is the active form of vitamin B6 serving as a coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine), sphingolipids, aminolevulinic acid. During transamination of amino acids, pyridoxal phosphate is transiently converted into pyridoxamine phosphate (pyridoxamine). -- Pubchem; Pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP, pyridoxal-5'-phosphate) is a cofactor of many enzymatic reactions. It is the active form of vitamin B6 which comprises three natural organic compounds, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and pyridoxine. -- Wikipedia.

Phosphoric acid mono-(4-formyl-5-hydroxy-6-methyl-pyridin-3-ylmethyl) ester

Pyridoxal 5'-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid)


AICAR

AICAR also known as ZMP is an analog of AMP that is capable of stimulating AMP-dependent protein kinase activity(AMPK). AICAR is an intermediate in the generation of inosine monophosphate. AICAR is being clinically used to treat and protect against cardiac ischemic injury. AICAR can enter cardiac cells to inhibit adenosine kinase and adenosine deaminase. It enhances the rate of nucleotide re-synthesis increasing adenosine generation from adenosine monophosphate only during conditions of myocardial ischemia. AICAR increases glucose uptake by inducing translocation of GLUT4 and/or by activating the p38 MAPK pathway.


Cobamamide

Adenosylcobalamin is one of two metabolically active forms synthesized upon ingestion of vitamin B12 and is the predominant form in the liver; it acts as a coenzyme in the reaction catalyzed by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. A cobalamin (cbl) derivative in which the substituent is deoxyadenosyl. It is one of two metabolically active forms synthesized upon ingestion of vitamin B12 and is the predominant form in the liver; it acts as a coenzyme in the reaction catalyzed by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM; E.C. 5.4.99.2). Inborn errors of vitamin B12 metabolism are autosomal recessive disorders and have been classified into nine distinct complementation classes. Disorders affecting adenosylcobalamin cause methylmalonic acidemia and metabolic acidosis. Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase catalyzes the conversion of L-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA and uses adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl) as a cofactor. Cbl must be transported into mitochondria, reduced and adenosylated before it can be utilized by MCM. (PMID: 17011224).


CID 54196400

Phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine, also known as fgam, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pentose phosphates. These are carbohydrate derivatives containing a pentose substituted by one or more phosphate groups. Phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine is involved in the mercaptopurine action pathway, the purine metabolism pathway, the azathioprine action pathway, and the thioguanine action pathway. Phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria), myoadenylate deaminase deficiency, molybdenum cofactor deficiency, and the gout or kelley-seegmiller syndrome pathway. Outside of the human body, phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine can be found in a number of food items such as winter savory, rambutan, mountain yam, and guava. This makes phosphoribosylformylglycineamidine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. 5-Phosphoribosyl-n-formylglycineamidine is a substrate for Glucosamine-6-phosphate isomerase.


N-[(R)-pantothenoyl]-L-cysteine

D-Pantothenoyl-L-cysteine is involved in the pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis pathway. D-Pantothenoyl-L-cysteine can be converted into (R)-4'-Phosphopantothenoyl-L-cysteine or Pantetheine by type I pantothenate kinase [EC:2.7.1.33] or [4.1.1.30], respectively.


Magnesium salts are essential in nutrition, being required for the activity of many enzymes, especially those concerned with oxidative phosphorylation. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. It is a component of both intra- and extracellular fluids and is excreted in the urine and feces. Deficiency causes irritability of the nervous system with tetany, vasodilatation, convulsions, tremors, depression, and psychotic behavior. Magnesium ion in large amounts is an ionic laxative, and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) is sometimes used for this purpose. So-called "milk of magnesia" is a water suspension of one of the few insoluble magnesium compounds, magnesium hydroxide; the undissolved particles give rise to its appearance and name. Milk of magnesia is a mild base, and is commonly used as an antacid.

Magnesium
Magnesium ions
Magnesium ion
Magnesium, doubly charged positive ion
Magnesium, ion (mg(2+))
Mg(2+)
Mg2+


superoxide

Superoxide is the anionic form O2. It is important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen (oxygen gas), which occurs widely in nature. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical. It is also paramagnetic. The biological toxicity of superoxide is due to its capacity to inactivate iron-sulfur cluster containing enzymes (which are critical in a wide variety of metabolic pathways), thereby liberating free iron in the cell, which can undergo fenton-chemistry and generate the highly reactive hydroxyl radical. In its HO2 form, superoxide can also initiate lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also reacts with carbonyl compounds and halogenated carbons to create toxic peroxy radicals. As such, superoxide is a main cause of oxidative stress. Highly reactive compounds produced when oxygen is reduced by a single electron. In biological systems, they may be generated during the normal catalytic function of a number of enzymes and during the oxidation of hemoglobin to Methemoglobin. Because superoxide is toxic, nearly all organisms living in the presence of oxygen contain isoforms of the superoxide scavenging enzyme, superoxide dismutase, or SOD. SOD is an extremely efficient enzyme; it catalyzes the neutralization of superoxide nearly as fast as the two can diffuse together spontaneously in solution. Genetic inactivation ("knockout") of SOD produces deleterious phenotypes in organisms ranging from bacteria to mice. The latter species dies around 21 days after birth if the mitochondrial variant of SOD (Mn-SOD) is inactivated, and suffers from multiple pathologies, including reduced lifespan, liver cancer, muscle atrophy, cataracts and female infertility when the cytoplasmic (Cu, Zn -SOD) variant is inactivated. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical and therefore paramagnetic. In living organisms, superoxide dismutase protects the cell from the deleterious effects of superoxides.

Dioxidanidyl
Dioxide(1-)
Hyperoxid
Superoxide
Superoxide anion
Superoxide radical
Superoxide radical anion
(o2)(.-)
Hyperoxide
O2(.-)
O2(-)
Superoxide anion radical
Superoxyde


7-a,27-dihydroxycholesterol is an intermediate in bile acid biosynthesis. The enzyme 27-Hydroxycholesterol 7alpha-monooxygenase [EC:1.14.13.60] catalyzes the production of this metabolite from 27-hydroxycholesterol. This enzyme reaction is irreversible and occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum.


4-Hydroxycyclophosphamide is a metabolite of Cyclophosphamide. 4-hydroxycyclophosphamide belongs to the family of Anilides. These are organic compounds derived fromoxoacidsRkE(=O)l(OH)m by replacing anOH group by theNHPh group or derivative formed by ring substitution[1].


4-Ketocyclophosphamide is a metabolite of cyclophosphamide. Cyclophosphamide (trade names Endoxan, Cytoxan, Neosar, Procytox, Revimmune), also known as cytophosphane, is a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent, from the oxazophorines group. An alkylating agent adds an alkyl group (CnH2n+1) to DNA. It attaches the alkyl group to the guanine base of DNA, at the number 7 nitrogen atom of the imidazole ring. It is used to treat various types of cancer and some autoimmune disorders. (Wikipedia)


One-methylhistidine (1-MHis) is derived mainly from the anserine of dietary flesh sources, especially poultry. The enzyme, carnosinase, splits anserine into b-alanine and 1-MHis. High levels of 1-MHis tend to inhibit the enzyme carnosinase and increase anserine levels. Conversely, genetic variants with deficient carnosinase activity in plasma show increased 1-MHis excretions when they consume a high meat diet. Reduced serum carnosinase activity is also found in patients with Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis and patients following a cerebrovascular accident. Vitamin E deficiency can lead to 1-methylhistidinuria from increased oxidative effects in skeletal muscle.


4-(trimethylammonio)butanoic acid

4-Trimethylammoniobutanoic acid or gamma-butyrobetaine (GBB) is a highly water-soluble derivative of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). It is also a precursor of L-carnitine. It is a substrate of gamma butyrobetaine hydroxylase/dioxygenase (also known as BBOX) which catalyzes the formation of L-carnitine from gamma-butyrobetaine, the last step in the L-carnitine biosynthesis pathway. Carnitine is essential for the transport of activated fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane during mitochondrial beta-oxidation. 4-Trimethylammoniobutanoic acid is also a substrate and/or product for alpha-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase (dimeric NADP-preferring), aldehyde dehydrogenase family 7 member A1, aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A3, aldehyde dehydrogenase (mitochondrial), fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase X (mitochondrial), and 4-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase.


Acetyl-N-formyl-5-methoxykynurenamine (AFMK) results from the oxidative cleavage of the pyrrole ring during melatonin oxidation by myeloperoxidase (MPO), a superoxide anion (O)-dependent reaction. AFMK is also expected to be formed from oxidation catalyzed by the unspecific enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), found in a variety of cell types including monocyte/macrophage lineages. MPO- and IDO-catalyzed melatonin oxidation has the requirement of O in common, a species formed in large amounts in inflammatory conditions. The non-enzymatic formation of AFMK can also be expected by its direct reaction with highly reactive oxygen species, such as hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen. Thus, we assume that AFMK is a product formed in a route of melatonin metabolism, especially active in inflammation. As AFMK is biologically more active on leukocytes than melatonin, the metabolizing of melatonin to AFMK at inflammatory sites possibly plays a role in immunomodulation. AFMK is found in the CSF of patients with meningitis, and in some samples at a remarkably high concentration. AFMK was also found in some patients to exceed the concentration of melatonin normally found in serum (PMID: 16150112).


flavocillin

An opioid analgesic with actions and uses similar to those of morphine, apart from an absence of cough suppressant activity. It is used in the treatment of moderate to severe pain, including pain in obstetrics. It may also be used as an adjunct to anesthesia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1092)

Dihydrohydroxymorphinone Dihydroxymorphinone Oxymorphine 14-hydroxydihydromorphinone Oximorphonum En3202 Numorphan Opana


4a-Methylzymosterol is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of steroids (KEGG ID C05103). It is the 7th to last step in the synthesis of vitamin D2 and is converted from 3-keto-4-methtylzymosterol via the enzyme 3-keto steroid reductase [EC:1.1.1.270]. It is then converted to zymosterol. (KEGG).


Artemether

Artemether is an antimalarial agent used to treat acute uncomplicated malaria. It is administered in combination with lumefantrine for improved efficacy. This combination therapy exerts its effects against the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium spp. and may be used to treat infections caused by P. falciparum and unidentified Plasmodium species, including infections acquired in chloroquine-resistant areas.


biocytin

Biocytin is a naturally occurring low molecular weight analog of biotin, and a primary source of this essential metabolite for mammals. Biotinidase acts as a hydrolase by cleaving biocytin and biotinyl-peptides, thereby liberating biotin for reutilization. Mammals cannot synthesize biotin and, therefore, derive the vitamin from dietary sources or from the endogenous turnover of the carboxylases. Free biotin can readily enter the biotin pool, whereas holocarboxylases or other biotin-containing proteins must first be degraded proteolytically to biocytin (biotinyl-e-lysine) or biotinyl-peptides. Biocytin is also an especially versatile marker for neuroanatomical investigations, shown that may have multiple applications, especially for labeling neurons. (PMID: 8930409, 1384763, 2479450).


Bafetinib

Bafetinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), a cancer characterized by increased and unregulated growth of white blood cells in the bone marrow and the accumulation of these cells in the blood. Bafetinib is able to bind ABL with greater affinity than Imatinib (25-55 times more potent). It is therefore administered to patients with Imatinib resistance. Notably, Bafetinib is ineffective against the T315I mutation in BCR-ABL, and further research is necessary.


Lapidosin

A carbamate with hypnotic, sedative, and some muscle relaxant properties, although in therapeutic doses reduction of anxiety rather than a direct effect may be responsible for muscle relaxation. Meprobamate has been reported to have anticonvulsant actions against petit mal seizures, but not against grand mal seizures (which may be exacerbated). It is used in the treatment of anxiety disorders, and also for the short-term management of insomnia but has largely been superseded by the benzodiazepines. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p603) Meprobamate is a controlled substance in the U.S.

Meprobamat [german]
Meprobamatum [inn-latin]
Meprobamato [italian]
Meprobamato [inn-spanish]
Meprobamic acid
Dea no. 2820
Procarbamide
Equanil
Miltown


5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid

5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid, also known as 5,6-dhica or DHI2C, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid is slightly soluble (in water) and a weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid is involved in the disulfiram action pathway and the tyrosine metabolism pathway. 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency, the tyrosinemia type I pathway, the alkaptonuria pathway, and monoamine oxidase-a deficiency (mao-a). 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid is an intermediate in the metabolism of Tyrosine. It is a substrate for Dopachrome tautomerase.


beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

3-Hydroxybutyric acid (or beta-hydroxybutyrate) is a ketone body. Like the other ketone bodies (acetoacetate and acetone), levels of 3-hydroxybutyrate in blood and urine are raised in ketosis. In humans, 3-hydroxybutyrate is synthesized in the liver from acetyl-CoA and can be used as an energy source by the brain when blood glucose is low. Blood levels of 3-hydroxybutyric acid levels may be monitored in diabetic patients to look for diabetic ketoacidosis. Persistent mild hyperketonemia is a common finding in newborns. Ketone bodies serve as an indispensable source of energy for extrahepatic tissues, especially the brain and lung of developing mammals. Another important function of ketone bodies is to provide acetoacetyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA for the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and complex lipids. During the early postnatal period, acetoacetate (AcAc) and beta-hydroxybutyrate are preferred over glucose as substrates for synthesis of phospholipids and sphingolipids in accord with requirements for brain growth and myelination. Thus, during the first 2 weeks of postnatal development, when the accumulation of cholesterol and phospholipids accelerates, the proportion of ketone bodies incorporated into these lipids increases. On the other hand, an increased proportion of ketone bodies is utilized for cerebroside synthesis during the period of active myelination. In the lung, AcAc serves better than glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of lung phospholipids. The synthesized lipids, particularly dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, are incorporated into surfactant, and thus have a potential role in supplying adequate surfactant lipids to maintain lung function during the early days of life (PMID: 3884391). 3-Hydroxybutyric acid is found to be associated with fumarase deficiency and medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism.

3-hydroxy-butanoate
3-hydroxy-butanoic acid
3-hydroxy-butyrate
3-hydroxy-butyric acid
3-hydroxybutanoate
3-hydroxybutanoic acid
3-hydroxybutyrate
3-hydroxybutyric acid
3-oh-butyric acid
Biopol
Dl-3-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-3-hydroxybutyric acid
Dl-b-hydroxybutyric acid
Dl-beta-hydroxybutyric acid
B-hydroxy-n-butyrate
B-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
B-hydroxybutanoate
B-hydroxybutanoic acid
B-hydroxybutyrate
B-hydroxybutyric acid
Beta-hydroxy-n-butyrate
Beta-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
Beta-hydroxybutanoate
Beta-hydroxybutanoic acid
Beta-hydroxybuttersaeure
Beta-hydroxybutyrate
Beta-hydroxybutyric acid
(1)-3-hydroxybutyric acid
3 hba
3-hydroxybuttersaeure
Bhba
(1)-3-hydroxybutyrate
3-oh-butyrate
β-hydroxy-n-butyrate
β-hydroxy-n-butyric acid
β-hydroxybutanoate
β-hydroxybutanoic acid
B-hydroxybuttersaeure
β-hydroxybuttersaeure
β-hydroxybutyrate
β-hydroxybutyric acid
Dl-b-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-beta-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-β-hydroxybutyrate
Dl-β-hydroxybutyric acid


Pretrichodermamide C

Bupranolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-selective beta blocker without intrinsic sympathomimetic activity (ISA), but with strong membrane stabilizing activity. Its potency is similar to 'propranolol':http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00571. Bupranolol competes with sympathomimetic neurotransmitters such as catecholamines for binding at beta(1)-adrenergic receptors in the heart, inhibiting sympathetic stimulation. This results in a reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and reflex orthostatic hypotension.


orazamide

5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide is an imidazole derivative which is a metabolite of the antineoplastic agents BIC and DIC. By itself, or as the ribonucleotide, it is used as a condensation agent in the preparation of nucleosides and nucleotides. Compounded with orotic acid, it is used to treat liver diseases. -- Pubchem.


Tetrahydrofolic acid

Tetrahydrofolate is a soluble coenzyme (vitamin B9) that is synthesized de novo by plants and microorganisms, and absorbed from the diet by animals. It is composed of three distinct parts: a pterin ring, a p-ABA (p-aminobenzoic acid) and a polyglutamate chain with a number of residues varying between 1 and 8. Only the tetra-reduced form of the molecule serves as a coenzyme for C1 transfer reactions. In biological systems, the C1-units exist under various oxidation states and the different tetrahydrofolate derivatives constitute a family of related molecules named indistinctly under the generic term folate. (PMID 16042593). Folate is important for cells and tissues that rapidly divide. Cancer cells divide rapidly, and drugs that interfere with folate metabolism are used to treat cancer. Methotrexate is a drug often used to treat cancer because it inhibits the production of the active form, tetrahydrofolate. Unfortunately, methotrexate can be toxic, producing side effects such as inflammation in the digestive tract that make it difficult to eat normally. -- Wikipedia; Signs of folic acid deficiency are often subtle. Diarrhea, loss of appetite, and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders. Women with folate deficiency who become pregnant are more likely to give birth to low birth weight and premature infants, and infants with neural tube defects. In adults, anemia is a sign of advanced folate deficiency. In infants and children, folate deficiency can slow growth rate. Some of these symptoms can also result from a variety of medical conditions other than folate deficiency. It is important to have a physician evaluate these symptoms so that appropriate medical care can be given. -- Wikipedia; Folinic acid is a form of folate that can help 'rescue' or reverse the toxic effects of methotrexate. Folinic acid is not the same as folic acid. Folic acid supplements have little established role in cancer chemotherapy. There have been cases of severe adverse effects of accidental substitution of folic acid for folinic acid in patients receiving methotrexate cancer chemotherapy. It is important for anyone receiving methotrexate to follow medical advice on the use of folic or folinic acid supplements. -- Wikipedia. Low concentrations of folate, vitamin B12, or vitamin B6 may increase the level of homocysteine, an amino acid normally found in blood. There is evidence that an elevated homocysteine level is an independent risk factor for heart disease and stroke. The evidence suggests that high levels of homocysteine may damage coronary arteries or make it easier for blood clotting cells called platelets to clump together and form a clot. However, there is currently no evidence available to suggest that lowering homocysteine with vitamins will reduce your risk of heart disease. Clinical intervention trials are needed to determine whether supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B12 or vitamin B6 can lower your risk of developing coronary heart disease. -- Wikipedia.

(6s)-tetrahydrofolate
(6s)-tetrahydrofolic acid
5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate
5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolic acid
Tetra-h-folate
Tetrahydrafolate
Tetrahydrofolate
Tetrahydrofolic acid
Tetrahydropteroyl mono-l-glutamate
Tetrahydropteroylglutamate


5-Hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkyl-phenylketones. These are aromatic compounds containing a ketone substituted by one alkyl group, and a phenyl group. 5-Hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). In humans, 5-hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine is involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathway. 5-Hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine is an intermediate in tryptophan metabolism. 5-Hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine is converted from 5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan via the enzyme, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase [EC:1.13.11.52].


5-Hydroxykynurenine is found in the tryptophan metabolism pathway. It is created from 5-Hydroxy-N-formylkynurenine through the action of arylformamidase [EC:3.5.1.9]. 5-Hydroxykynurenine is then converted to 5-Hydroxykynurenamine by the action of dopa decarboxylase [EC:4.1.1.28].


Oxisterigmatocystin D

N5-Formyl-THF, also known as leucovorin or folinate, calcium, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as tetrahydrofolic acids. These are heterocyclic compounds based on the 5,6,7,8-tetrahydropteroic acid skeleton conjugated with at least one L-glutamic acid unit. N5-Formyl-THF exists as a solid and is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral. N5-Formyl-THF has been found in human bladder, testicle and pancreas tissues, and has also been primarily detected in blood. Within the cell, N5-formyl-THF is primarily located in the mitochondria and cytoplasm. N5-Formyl-THF exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, N5-formyl-THF is involved in the methotrexate action pathway, the folate metabolism pathway, and the folate malabsorption, hereditary pathway. N5-Formyl-THF is also involved in the metabolic disorder called methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency (MTHFRD). The active metabolite of folic acid. Leucovorin is used principally as its calcium salt as an antidote to folic acid antagonists which block the conversion of folic acid to folinic acid.


Phallusialide E

desloratadine is available off the shelf in Canada); Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.

Alavert Amantadine Anhissen Bonalerg Claritine Clarityn Clarityne Cronopen Flonidan Fristamin Histaloran Klaritin Lertamine Lisino Loracert Loradex Loranox Lorastine Loratadine Loratidine Claritin


Mequitazine is a histamine H1 antagonist (antihistamine). It competes with histamine for the normal H1-receptor sites on effector cells of the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels and respiratory tract. It provides effective, temporary relief of sneezing, watery and itchy eyes, and runny nose due to hay fever and other upper respiratory allergies.

Mequitazina [inn-spanish]
Mequitazina [spanish]
Mequitazinum [inn-latin]
Kitazemin


4,4-Dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8-en-3b-ol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as triterpenoids. These are terpene molecules containing six isoprene units. 4,4-Dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8-en-3b-ol is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Within the cell, 4,4-dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8-en-3b-ol is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP) and cytoplasm. In humans, 4,4-dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8-en-3b-ol is involved in steroid biosynthesis pathway, the alendronate action pathway, the risedronate action pathway, and the simvastatin action pathway. 4,4-Dimethyl-5a-cholesta-8-en-3b-ol is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the hypercholesterolemia pathway, the wolman disease pathway, lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease), and the smith-lemli-opitz syndrome (slos) pathway. 4,4-Dimethyl-5alpha-cholesta-8-en-3beta-ol is involved in the biosynthesis of steriods. 4,4-Dimethyl-5alpha-cholesta-8-en-3beta-ol is reversibly converted into 14-Demethyllanosterol by delta24-sterol reductase [EC:1.3.1.72].


cysteic acid

Cysteic acid, also known as cysteate or 3-sulfoalanine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Cysteic acid is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, cysteic acid is primarily located in the mitochondria. Cysteic acid exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Cysteic acid and oxoglutaric acid can be converted into L-glutamic acid and 3-sulfopyruvic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme aspartate transaminase. In humans, cysteic acid is involved in the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism pathway. Cysteic acid is a crystalline amino acid formed in the oxidation of cysteine; it is a precursor of taurine.

2-amino-3-sulfopropanoate
2-amino-3-sulfopropanoic acid
2-amino-3-sulfopropionate
2-amino-3-sulfopropionic acid
3-sulfoalanine
Cepteate
Cepteic acid
Cipteate
Cipteic acid
Cysteate
Cysteinate
Cysteinesulfonate
Cysteinesulfonic acid
Cysteinic acid
Cysterate
Cysteric acid
L-cysteate
L-cysteic acid
Beta-sulfoalanine
Cysteine sulfonic acid
3-sulphoalanine
B-sulfoalanine
B-sulphoalanine
Beta-sulphoalanine
β-sulfoalanine
β-sulphoalanine
Cysteine sulfonate
Cysteine sulphonate
Cysteine sulphonic acid


Mo-molybdopterin cofactor

Molybdenum cofactor is a cofactor required for the activity of enzymes such as sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidoreductase, and aldehyde oxidase. It is a coordination complex formed between molybdopterin (which, despite the name, does not contain molybdenum) and an oxide of molybdenum. Molybdopterins, in turn, are synthesized from guanosine triphosphate. Molybdenum cofactor functions directly in ethylbenzene dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and respiratory arsenate reductase. In animals and plants these enzymes use molybdenum bound at the active site in a tricyclic molybdenum cofactor. All molybdenum-using enzymes so far identified in nature use this cofactor The simplest structure of molybdopterin contains a pyranopterin coordinated to molybdenum. The pyranopterin structure is a fused ring system containing a pyran fused to pterin. In addition, the pyran ring is substituted with two thiols and an alkyl phosphate. In molybdopterin, the thiols coordinate to molybdenum. In some cases, the alkyl phosphate group is replaced by an alkyl diphosphate nucleotide. -- Wikipedia.


5beta-cyprinol sulfate

5b-Cyprinol sulfate is an intermediate in bile acid biosynthesis. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depends only on presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g., membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues. (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).


N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid

N-Acetylaspartic acid is a derivative of aspartic acid. It is the second most concentrated molecule in the brain after the amino acid glutamate. It is synthesized in neurons from the amino acid aspartate and acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). The various functions served by N-acetylaspartic acid are still under investigation, but the primary proposed functions include (1) acting as a neuronal osmolyte that is involved in fluid balance in the brain, (2) serving as a source of acetate for lipid and myelin synthesis in oligodendrocytes (the glial cells that myelinate neuronal axons), (3) serving as a precursor for the synthesis of the important dipeptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), and (4) playing a potential role in energy production from the amino acid glutamate in neuronal mitochondria. High neurotransmitter levels can lead to abnormal neural signaling, delayed or arrested intellectual development, and difficulties with general motor skills. When present in sufficiently high levels, N-acetylaspartic acid can be a neurotoxin, an acidogen, and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural tissue. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of N-acetylaspartic acid are associated with Canavan disease. N-acetylaspartic acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. Infants with acidosis have symptoms that include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and flapping tremors.

(2s)-2-acetamidobutanedioate
(2s)-2-acetamidobutanedioic acid
(s)-2-(acetylamino)butanedioate
(s)-2-(acetylamino)butanedioic acid
(s)-2-(acetylamino)succinic acid
Acetyl-l-aspartate
Acetyl-l-aspartic acid
Acetylaspartate
Acetylaspartic acid
L-n-acetylaspartate
L-n-acetylaspartic acid
N-acetyl-l-aspartate
N-acetyl-l-aspartic acid
N-acetyl-s-aspartate
N-acetyl-s-aspartic acid
N-acetylaspartate
N-acetylaspartic acid
Naa
(s)-2-(acetylamino)succinate


6-acetylmorphine belongs to the family of Morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic.


Youssoufene B3

Xanthurenic acid, also known as xanthurenate or 8-hydroxykynurenate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as quinoline carboxylic acids. These are quinolines in which the quinoline ring system is substituted by a carboxyl group at one or more positions. Xanthurenic acid exists as a solid, slightly soluble (in water), and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Xanthurenic acid has been found in human epidermis tissue, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as feces, urine, and blood. In humans, xanthurenic acid is involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathway. Xanthurenic acid has been found to be associated with several diseases known as colorectal cancer, eosinophilic esophagitis, and hemodialysis; xanthurenic acid has also been linked to the inborn metabolic disorders including kynureninase deficiency. Xanthurenic acid is a metabolite from tryptophan catabolism. It is a substrate of the enzyme methyltransferases [EC 2.1.1.-] in pathway tryptophan metabolism (KEGG).


L-fucopyranose

Fucose is a hexose deoxy sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O5. L-fucose (6-deoxy-L-galactose) is a monosaccharide that is a common component of many N- and O-linked glycans and glycolipids produced by mammalian cells. It is the fundamental sub-unit of the fucoidan polysaccharide. As a free sugar, L-fucose is normally found at very low levels in mammals. It is unique in that it is the only levorotatory sugar synthesized and utilized by mammals. Fucose polymers are synthesized by fucosyltransferases.  All fucosyltransferases utilize a nucleotide-activated form of fucose, GDP-fucose, as a fucose donor in the construction of fucosylated oligosaccharides. The ABO blood group antigens are among the most well known fucosylated glycans. The alpha-1->3 linked core fucose is a suspected carbohydrate antigen for IgE-mediated allergy. Two structural features distinguish fucose from other six-carbon sugars present in mammals: the lack of a hydroxyl group on the carbon at the 6-position (C-6) and the L-configuration. In fucose-containing glycan structures, fucosylated glycans, fucose can exist as a terminal modification or serve as an attachment point for adding other sugars. Fucose is metabolized by an enzyme called alpha-fucosidase. Fucose is secreted in urine when the liver is damaged.  Free L-fucose in serum and urine can be used as a marker for cancer, cirrhosis, alcoholic liver disease and gastric ulcers (PMID: 2311216) (PMID: 8488966). Elevated levels of serum fucose have been reported in breast cancer, ovarian cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. It has been shown that feeding rats a diet high in L-fucose induces neuropathy similar to that seen in diabetics.


Mercaptopurine

Mercaptopurine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antimetabolite antineoplastic agent with immunosuppressant properties. It interferes with nucleic acid synthesis by inhibiting purine metabolism and is used, usually in combination with other drugs, in the treatment of or in remission maintenance programs for leukemia. [PubChem]Mercaptopurine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to thioinosinic acid (TIMP). This intracellular nucleotide inhibits several reactions involving inosinic acid (IMP), including the conversion of IMP to xanthylic acid (XMP) and the conversion of IMP to adenylic acid (AMP) via adenylosuccinate (SAMP). In addition, 6-methylthioinosinate (MTIMP) is formed by the methylation of TIMP. Both TIMP and MTIMP have been reported to inhibit glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway for purine ribonucleotide synthesis. Experiments indicate that radiolabeled mercaptopurine may be recovered from the DNA in the form of deoxythioguanosine. Some mercaptopurine is converted to nucleotide derivatives of 6-thioguanine (6-TG) by the sequential actions of inosinate (IMP) dehydrogenase and xanthylate (XMP) aminase, converting TIMP to thioguanylic acid (TGMP).


NORLIDOCAINE

Monoethylglycinexylidide is a metabolite of lidocaine. Lidocaine, Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery. (Wikipedia)


Ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid is found naturally in citrus fruits and many vegetables and is an essential nutrient in human diets. It is necessary to maintain connective tissue and bone. The biologically active form of ascorbic acid is vitamin C. Vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin. Primates (including humans) and a few other species in all divisions of the animal kingdom, notably the guinea pig, have lost the ability to synthesize ascorbic acid and must obtain it in their food. Vitamin C functions as a reducing agent and coenzyme in several metabolic pathways. Vitamin C is considered an antioxidant. [PubChem] Ascorbic acid is an electron donor for enzymes involved in collagen hydroxylation, biosynthesis of carnitine and norepinephrine, tyrosine metabolism, and amidation of peptide hormones. Ascrobic acid (vitamin C) deficiency causes scurvy. The amount of vitamin C necessary to prevent scurvy may not be adequate to maintain optimal health. The ability of vitamin C to donate electrons also makes it a potent water-soluble antioxidant that readily scavenges free radicals such as molecular oxygen, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and hypochlorous acid. In this setting, several mechanisms could account for a link between vitamin C and heart disease. One is the relation between LDL oxidation and vitamins C and E. Vitamin C in vitro can recycle vitamin E, which can donate electrons to prevent LDL oxidation in vitro. As the lipid-phase vitamin E is oxidized, it can be regenerated by aqueous vitamin C. Other possibilities are that vitamin C could decrease cholesterol by mechanisms not well characterized, or could improve vasodilatation and vascular reactivity, perhaps by decreasing the interactions of nitric oxide with oxidants. (PMID: 10799361).

(+)-sodium l-ascorbate
(+)-ascorbate
(+)-ascorbic acid
3-keto-l-gulofuranolactone
3-oxo-l-gulofuranolactone
Adenex
Allercorb
Antiscorbic vitamin
Antiscorbutic vitamin
Arco-cee
Ascoltin
Ascor-b.i.d.
Ascorb
Ascorbajen
Ascorbate
Ascorbic acid
Ascorbicab
Ascorbicap
Ascorbicin
Ascorbin
Ascorbutina
Ascorin
Ascorteal
Ascorvit
C-level
C-long
C-quin
C-span
C-vimin
Cantan
Cantaxin
Catavin c
Ce lent
Ce-mi-lin
Ce-vi-sol
Cebicure
Cebid
Cebion
Cebione
Cecon
Cee-caps td
Cee-vite
Cegiolan
Ceglion
Ceklin
Celaskon
Celin
Cell c
Cemagyl
Cemill
Cenetone
Cenolate
Cereon
Cergona
Cescorbat
Cetamid
Cetane
Cetane-caps tc
Cetane-caps td
Cetebe
Cetemican
Cevalin
Cevatine
Cevex
Cevi-bid
Cevimin
Cevital
Cevitamate
Cevitamic acid
Cevitamin
Cevitan
Cevitex
Cewin
Chewcee
Ciamin
Cipca
Citriscorb
Citrovit
Colascor
Concemin
Davitamon c
Dora-c-500
Duoscorb
Ferrous ascorbate
Hicee
Hybrin
Ido-c
Juvamine
Kangbingfeng
Kyselina askorbova
L(+)-ascorbate
L(+)-ascorbic acid
L-(+)-ascorbate
L-(+)-ascorbic acid
L-3-ketothreohexuronic acid lactone
L-ascorbate
L-ascorbic acid
L-lyxoascorbate
L-lyxoascorbic acid
L-threo-ascorbic acid
L-xyloascorbate
L-xyloascorbic acid
Laroscorbine
Lemascorb
Liqui-cee
Meri-c
Natrascorb
Natrascorb injectable
Planavit c
Proscorbin
Redoxon
Ribena
Ronotec 100
Rontex 100
Roscorbic
Rovimix c
Scorbacid
Scorbu c
Scorbu-c
Secorbate
Sodascorbate
Suncoat vc 40
Testascorbic
Vasc
Vicelat
Vicin
Vicomin c
Viforcit
Viscorin
Viscorin 100m
Vitace
Vitacee
Vitacimin
Vitacin
Vitamin c
Vitamisin
Vitascorbol
Xitix
Gamma-lactone l-threo-hex-2-enonate
Gamma-lactone l-threo-hex-2-enonic acid
Acide ascorbique
Acido ascorbico
Acidum ascorbicum
Acidum ascorbinicum
Ascorbinsaeure
E 300
E-300
E300


7alpha,12alpha-Dihydroxy-5beta-cholestan-3-one is an intermediate in bile acid biosynthesis. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depends only on presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g., membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues. (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).


7alpha-Hydroxy-5beta-cholestan-3-one is an intermediate in bile acid synthesis. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depends only on presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g., membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues. (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).


6-Thioinosine-5-monophosphate, also known as 6-timp or ion(-2) OF thioinosinic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside monophosphates. These are nucleotides consisting of a purine base linked to a ribose to which one monophosphate group is attached. 6-Thioinosine-5-monophosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-Thioinosine-5-monophosphate has been found in human liver and kidney tissues, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as urine and blood. Within the cell, 6-thioinosine-5-monophosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, 6-thioinosine-5-monophosphate is involved in the thioguanine action pathway, the azathioprine action pathway, the mercaptopurine metabolism pathway, and the mercaptopurine action pathway. 6-Thioinosine-5-monophosphate is a metabolite of mercaptopurine. Mercaptopurine (also called 6-mercaptopurine, 6-MP or its brand name purinethol) is an immunosuppressive drug. It is a thiopurine (Wikipedia).


chrysosplenoside A

Trichlormethiazide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a thiazide diuretic with properties similar to those of hydrochlorothiazide. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p830)Trichlormethiazide appears to block the active reabsorption of chloride and possibly sodium in the ascending loop of Henle, altering electrolyte transfer in the proximal tubule. This results in excretion of sodium, chloride, and water and, hence, diuresis. As a diuretic, Trichloromethiazide inhibits active chloride reabsorption at the early distal tubule via the Na-Cl cotransporter, resulting in an increase in the excretion of sodium, chloride, and water. Thiazides like Trichloromethiazide also inhibit sodium ion transport across the renal tubular epithelium through binding to the thiazide sensitive sodium-chloride transporter. This results in an increase in potassium excretion via the sodium-potassium exchange mechanism. The antihypertensive mechanism of Trichloromethiazide is less well understood although it may be mediated through its action on carbonic anhydrases in the smooth muscle or through its action on the large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (KCa) channel, also found in the smooth muscle.


Acebutolol

Acebutolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist with little effect on the bronchial receptors. The drug has stabilizing and quinidine-like effects on cardiac rhythm as well as weak inherent sympathomimetic action. [PubChem]Acebutolol is a selective β1-receptor antagonist. Activation of β1-receptors by epinephrine increases the heart rate and the blood pressure, and the heart consumes more oxygen. Acebutolol blocks these receptors, lowering the heart rate and blood pressure. This drug then has the reverse effect of epinephrine. In addition, beta blockers prevent the release of renin, which is a hormone produced by the kidneys which leads to constriction of blood vessels.


dimethylarsinous acid

Dimethylarsinous acid is a reactive organic intermediate of dimethylarsinic acid involved in toxicity. Dimethylarsinous acid is detected in the urine of individuals who ingest arsenic-polluted drinking water. The cytogenetic study in V79 cells using iododimethylarsine, which is easily hydrolyzed to dimethylarsinous acid in water, revealed that dimethylarsinous acid was very cytotoxic (50% growth inhibition concentration; 1.1 (+-) 0.14 uM), and either induced aneuploids or a high rate of tetraploids (73% at 2.5 μM). Dimethylarsinous acid caused mitotic arrest, since the mitotic index at toxic dose (5 μM) was 13.9%, significantly higher than the control (2.7%). Dimethylarsinous acid significantly increased sister chromatid exchange (SCE) and chromosomal aberrations, most of which were chromatid gaps and chromatid breaks. The cytotoxicity and the activity of dimethylarsinous acid in inducing chromosomal aberration or SCE was as effective as arsenite, but the activity was much lower than that of mitomycin C, which was used as a positive control. The most potent effects of dimethylarsinous acid on the cells were induction of aneuploids, tetraploids and c-mitosis. The toxicity of dimethylarsinous acid is strongly related to the disturbance of the normal cell cycle.(PMID: 15276414).


Bevantolol

Bevantolol is a beta-1 adrenoceptor antagonist that has been shown to be as effective as other beta blockers for the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Mechanism of Action Animal experiments confirm both agonist and antagonist effects on alpha-receptors, in addition to antagonist activity at beta-1 receptors.


Bromfenac

Bromfenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for ophthalmic use. Ophthalmic NSAIDs are becoming a cornerstone for the management of ocular pain and inflammation. Their well-characterized anti-inflammatory activity, analgesic property, and established safety record have also made NSAIDs an important tool to optimize surgical outcomes.


heme o

Heme O belongs to the class of organic compounds known as metallotetrapyrroles. These are polycyclic compounds containing a tetrapyrrole skeleton combined with a metal atom. Heme O is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Within the cell, heme O is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). Heme O exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, heme O is involved in the porphyrin metabolism pathway. Heme O is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the porphyria variegata (PV) pathway, congenital erythropoietic porphyria (cep) or gunther disease pathway, the hereditary coproporphyria (HCP) pathway, and the acute intermittent porphyria pathway. Heme O differs from the closely related heme A by having a methyl group at ring position 8 instead of the formyl group, the isoprenoid chain at position 2 is the same (Wikipedia).


Adefovir

Adefovir, also known as pmea or DRG-0156, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-aminopurines. These are purines that carry an amino group at position 6. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. Adefovir exists as a solid, slightly soluble (in water), and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Adefovir participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, adefovir can be biosynthesized from adenine. Adefovir can also be converted into adefovir pivoxil. Adefovir is a Hepatitis B Virus Nucleoside Analog Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. The mechanism of action of adefovir is as a Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. The chemical classification of adefovir is Nucleoside Analog.


Cinchocaine

A local anesthetic of the amide type now generally used for surface anesthesia. It is one of the most potent and toxic of the long-acting local anesthetics and its parenteral use is restricted to spinal anesthesia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1006)


adenylyl selenate

Adenylylselenate is an intermediate in selenoamino acid metabolism. Adenylylselenate is produced from selenate via the enzyme sulfate adenylyltransferase [EC:2.7.7.4] and then converted to selenite via the enzyme adenylylsulfate reductase [EC:1.8.99.2]. The reaction between adenylselenate and adenylylsulfate kinase [EC:2.7.1.25] also gives rise to the 3'-Phosphoadenylylselenate.

Adenosine-5'-phosphoselenate
Adenylylselenic acid
Adenylylselenate
Adenosine-5'-phosphoselenic acid


mevalonic acid

Mevalonic acid is a key organic compound in biochemistry. It is a precursor in the biosynthetic pathway, known as the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, that produces terpenes and steroids. Mevalonate is produced by NADPH from 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA via reduction. This reaction occurs in the cytosol. It is the committed step in cholesterol synthesis, -- Wikipedia The production of mevalonic acid (MVA) by the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, is the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of cholesterol. (Jemal et. al, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 2003, 17:1715) Plasma concentrations and urinary excretion of MVA are decreased by HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor drugs such as pravastatin, simvastatin and atorvastatin. Naoumova RP, Marais AD, Mountney J, Firth JC, Rendell NB, Taylor GW, Thompson GR. Atherosclerosis 1996; 119: 203.

(3rs)-mevalonate
(3rs)-mevalonic acid
2,4-dideoxy-3-c-methylpentonate
2,4-dideoxy-3-c-methylpentonic acid
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-valerate
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-valeric acid
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylpentanoate
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylpentanoic acid
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvalerate
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvaleric acid
Dl-mevalonate
Dl-mevalonic acid
Hiochic acid
Mk 91
Mva
Mvs
Mevalonate
Mevalonic acid
Rs-mevalonate
Rs-mevalonic acid
B,d-dihydroxy-b-methylvalerate
B,d-dihydroxy-b-methylvaleric acid
B,d-dihydroxy-beta-methylvalerate
B,d-dihydroxy-beta-methylvaleric acid


Aldophosphamide

Detoxification of cyclophosphamide is effected, in part, by hepatic class 1 aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH-1)-catalyzed oxidation of aldophosphamide, a pivotal aldehyde intermediate, to the nontoxic metabolite, carboxyphosphamide. Detoxification of aldophosphamide may also be effected by enzymes, viz. Thus, NAD-linked oxidation and NADPH-linked reduction of aldophosphamide catalyzed by relevant erythrocyte enzymes were quantified. (PMID: 9394035) Class 1 aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH-1) function as drug resistance gene products by catalyzing the irreversible conversion of aldophosphamide, an active metabolite of cyclophosphamide, to an inert compound. (PMID: 9322086)


Alendronic acid

Alendronic acid, also known as alendronate or acido alendronico, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as bisphosphonates. These are organic compounds containing two phosphonate groups linked together through a carbon atoms. Alendronic acid is a drug which is used for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis in women and paget's disease of bone in both men and women. Alendronic acid exists as a solid, soluble (in water), and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Alendronic acid has been found in human prostate and intestine tissues. Within the cell, alendronic acid is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, alendronic acid is involved in the alendronate action pathway. Alendronic acid is a potentially toxic compound. Alendronate (Fosamax, Merck) is a bisphosphonate drug used for osteoporosis and several other bone diseases. It is marketed alone as well as in combination with vitamin D (2,800 U, under the name Fosavance).


Alfentanil

A short-acting opioid anesthetic and analgesic derivative of fentanyl. It produces an early peak analgesic effect and fast recovery of consciousness. Alfentanil is effective as an anesthetic during surgery, for supplementation of analgesia during surgical procedures, and as an analgesic for critically ill patients. [PubChem]


Practolol

Practolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a beta-adrenergic antagonist that has been used in the emergency treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. [PubChem]Like other beta-adrenergic antagonists, practolol competes with adrenergic neurotransmitters such as catecholamines for binding at sympathetic receptor sites. Like propranolol and timolol, practolol binds at beta(1)-adrenergic receptors in the heart and vascular smooth muscle, inhibiting the effects of the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine and decreasing heart rate, cardiac output, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure.


PARAXANTHINE

1,7-dimethylxanthine (paraxanthine) is the preferential path of caffeine metabolism in humans. Paraxanthine is a dimethylxanthine compound structurally related to caffeine. Like caffeine, paraxanthine is a psychoactive central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. It possesses a potency roughly equal to that of caffeine and is likely involved in the mediation of the effects of caffeine itself.