Inosine

Inosine is a purine nucleoside that has hypoxanthine linked by the N9 nitrogen to the C1 carbon of ribose. It is an intermediate in the degradation of purines and purine nucleosides to uric acid and in pathways of purine salvage. It also occurs in the anticodon of certain transfer RNA molecules. (Dorland, 28th ed).


Hexadecanal

Palmitaldehyde, also known as 1-hexadecanal, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as fatty aldehydes. These are long chain aldehydes with a chain of at least 12 carbon atoms. Thus, palmitaldehyde is considered to be a fatty aldehyde lipid molecule. Palmitaldehyde exists as a solid and is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral. Palmitaldehyde has been primarily detected in urine. Within the cell, palmitaldehyde is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP), endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm. In humans, palmitaldehyde is involved in the globoid cell leukodystrophy pathway, the metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD) pathway, and the sphingolipid metabolism pathway. Palmitaldehyde is also involved in a few metabolic disorders, which include the gaucher disease pathway, the fabry disease pathway, and the krabbe disease pathway. Outside of the human body, palmitaldehyde can be found in a number of food items such as bamboo shoots, kombu, common bean, and white lupine. This makes palmitaldehyde a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Palmitaldehyde is an intermediate in the metabolism of Glycosphingolipid. It is a substrate for Sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase 1.


6,7-Dimethyl-8-(1-D-ribityl)lumazine is an intermediate in riboflavin metabolism. 6,7-Dimethyl-8-(1-D-ribityl)lumazine is the second to last step in the synthesis of ribitol and is converted from 4-(1-D-ribitylamino)-5-amino-2,6-dihydroxypyrimidine via the enzyme riboflavin synthase beta chain. It is then. converted to riboflavin via the enzyme riboflavin synthase alpha chain (EC:2.5.1.9).


FMN

Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), or riboflavin-5?-phosphate, is a biomolecule produced from riboflavin (vitamin B2) by the enzyme riboflavin kinase and functions as prosthetic group of various oxidoreductases including NADH dehydrogenase as well as cofactor in biological blue-light photo receptors. During the catalytic cycle, the reversible interconversion of oxidized (FMN), semiquinone (FMNH) and reduced (FMNH2) forms occurs in the various oxidoreductases. FMN is a stronger oxidizing agent than NAD and is particularly useful because it can take part in both one- and two-electron transfers. Flavin mononucleotide is also used as an orange-red food colour additive. It is the principal form in which riboflavin is found in cells and tissues.

Fmn
Flanin
Flavine mononucleotide
Flavol
Riboflavin
Riboflavin 5'-monophosphate
Riboflavin 5'-phosphate
Riboflavin mononucleotide
Riboflavin monophosphate
Riboflavin phosphate
Riboflavin-5'-phosphate na
Riboflavin-5-phosphate
Riboflavine 5'-monophosphate
Riboflavine 5'-phosphate
Riboflavine dihydrogen phosphate
Riboflavine monophosphate
Riboflavine phosphate
Riboflavine-5'-phosphate
Vitamin b2 phosphate
Flavin mononucleotide
Riboflavin 5'-(dihydrogen phosphate)


dUMP

dUMP is formed by the reduction of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides by ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase [EC 1.17.4.1]. dUMP by the action of by thymidylate synthetase [EC 2.1.1.45] produces dTMP (5,10-Methylene-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate is a cofactor for the reaction). The nuclear form of uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG2), that its major role is to remove misincorporated dUMP residues (cells deficient in removal of misincorporated dUMP accumulate uracil residues). (PMID 11554311).

2'-deoxy-5'-uridylate
2'-deoxy-5'-uridylic acid
2'-deoxyuridine 5'-monophosphate
2'-deoxyuridine 5'-phosphate
2'-deoxyuridylate
2'-deoxyuridylic acid
Deoxy-ump
Deoxyuridine 5'-monophosphate
Deoxyuridine 5'-phosphate
Deoxyuridine monophosphate
Deoxyuridylate
Deoxyuridylic acid
2'-deoxyuridine 5'-monophosphoric acid
2'-deoxyuridine 5'-phosphoric acid
Deoxyuridine 5'-phosphoric acid
Deoxyuridine monophosphoric acid


dUTP

Deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) is a deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) that is chemically similar to uridine triphosphate (UTP) except that it has a deoxyribose sugar instead of a ribose sugar. DNA synthesis requires the availability of deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dTTP, dATP, dGTP, dCTP), whereas RNA synthesis requires the availability of nucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) such as TTP, ATP, GTP, and UTP. The conversion of nucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) into dNTPs can only be done in the diphosphate form. Typically, an NTP has one phosphate removed to become an NDP. This is then converted into a dNDP by an enzyme called ribonucleotide reductase and followed by the re-addition of phosphate to give a dNTP. dUTP is a substrate for several enzymes, including inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase, deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (mitochondrial), uridine-cytidine kinase 1, nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3, nucleoside diphosphate kinase B, nucleoside diphosphate kinase 6, nucleoside diphosphate kinase (mitochondrial), nucleoside diphosphate kinase homolog 5, nucleoside diphosphate kinase A, and nucleoside diphosphate kinase 7. While UTP is routinely incorporated into RNA, dUTP is not normally incorporated into DNA. Instead, if dUTP is misincorporated into DNA, it can cause DNA damage. Therefore, dUTP can be considered as a teratogen or a mutagen. The extent of DNA damage caused by dUTP is highly dependent on the levels of the dUTP pyrophosphatase (dUTPase) and uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG), which limits the intracellular accumulation of dUTP. Additionally, loss of viability following thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition occurs as a consequence of the accumulation of dUTP in some cell lines and subsequent misincorporation of uracil into DNA (PMID: 11487279).

2'-deoxyuridine-5'-triphosphoric acid = dutp


Ferroheme

Heme is the color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins. A heme or haem is a prosthetic group that consists of an iron atom contained in the center of a large heterocyclic organic ring called a porphyrin. Not all porphyrins contain iron, but a substantial fraction of porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic subunit; these are known as hemoproteins.

(protoporphyrinato)iron
Ferroheme
Ferroheme b
Ferroprotoheme
Ferroprotoporphyrin
Ferroprotoporphyrin ix
Ferrous protoheme
Ferrous protoheme ix
Haem
Hem
Heme
Iron protoporphyrin
Iron protoporphyrin ix
Iron(ii) protoporphyrin ix
Protoferroheme
Protohaem
Protoheme
Protoheme ix
Reduced hematin


Kanamycin

Kanamycin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces kanamyceticus from Japanese soil. Comprises 3 components: kanamycin A, the major component, and kanamycins B and C, the minor components. [PubChem]Aminoglycosides like kanamycin "irreversibly" bind to specific 30S-subunit proteins and 16S rRNA. Specifically Kanamycin binds to four nucleotides of 16S rRNA and a single amino acid of protein S12. This interferes with decoding site in the vicinity of nucleotide 1400 in 16S rRNA of 30S subunit. This region interacts with the wobble base in the anticodon of tRNA. This leads to interference with the initiation complex, misreading of mRNA so incorrect amino acids are inserted into the polypeptide leading to nonfunctional or toxic peptides and the breakup of polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.


Guanosine tetraphosphate

Guanosine 3,5-bis(diphosphate), also known as guanosine-5',3'-tetraphosphate or tetraphosphate, guanosine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. Guanosine 3,5-bis(diphosphate) is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Guanosine 3,5-bis(diphosphate) exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Guanosine 3,5-bis(diphosphate) is part of the Purine metabolism pathway. It is a substrate for: Guanosine-3,5-bis(diphosphate) 3-pyrophosphohydrolase MESH1.

Guanosine 3'-diphosphoric acid 5'-diphosphoric acid

Guanosine 5'-diphosphoric acid,3'-diphosphoric acid


sphingomyelin d18:1

Sphingomyelin (d18:1/18:0) or SM(d18:1/18:0) is a type of sphingolipid found in animal cell membranes, especially in the membranous myelin sheath which surrounds some nerve cell axons. It usually consists of phosphorylcholine and ceramide. SM(18:1/18:0) consists of oleic acid attached to the C1 position and stearic acid attached to the C2 position. In humans, sphingomyelin is the only membrane phospholipid not derived from glycerol. Like all sphingolipids, SPH has a ceramide core (sphingosine bonded to a fatty acid via an amide linkage). In addition it contains one polar head group, which is either phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine. The plasma membrane of cells is highly enriched in sphingomyelin and is considered largely to be found in the exoplasmic leaflet of the cell membrane. However, there is some evidence that there may also be a sphingomyelin pool in the inner leaflet of the membrane. Moreover, neutral sphingomyelinase-2 - an enzyme that breaks down sphingomyelin into ceramide has been found to localise exclusively to the inner leaflet further suggesting that there may be sphingomyelin present there. Sphingomyelin can accumulate in a rare hereditary disease called Niemann-Pick Disease, types A and B. Niemann-Pick disease is a genetically-inherited disease caused by a deficiency in the enzyme Sphingomyelinase, which causes the accumulation of Sphingomyelin in spleen, liver, lungs, bone marrow, and the brain, causing irreversible neurological damage. SMs play a role in signal transduction. Sphingomyelins are synthesized by the transfer of phosphorylcholine from phosphatidylcholine to a ceramide in a reaction catalyzed by sphingomyelin synthase.


Hydrocortisone

Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex and it is involved in the stress response. Its synthetic counterpart hydrocortisone is used, either as an injection or topically, in the treatment of inflammation, allergy, collagen diseases, asthma, adrenocortical deficiency, shock, and some neoplastic conditions. Hydrocortisone is synthesized from pregnenolone and is used as an immunosuppressive drug given by injection in the treatment of severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis and angioedema, in place of prednisolone in patients who need steroid treatment but cannot take oral medication, and peri-operatively in patients on long-term steroid treatment to prevent an Addisonian crisis. Cortisol increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, may cause infertility in women, and suppresses the immune system. The amount of cortisol present in the serum undergoes diurnal variation, with the highest levels present in the early morning and lower levels in the evening, several hours after the onset of sleep. Cortisol is found to be associated with ACTH deficiency and glucocorticoid deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Cortisol binds to the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor, the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA-bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes. The anti-inflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Specifically, glucocorticoids induce lipocortin-1 (annexin-1) synthesis, which then binds to cell membranes and prevents phospholipase A2 from coming into contact with its substrate arachidonic acid. This leads to diminished eicosanoid production. The cyclooxygenase (both COX-1 and COX-2) expression is also suppressed, potentiating the effect. In other words, the two main products of inflammation, prostaglandins and leukotrienes, are inhibited by the action of glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids also stimulate the escape of lipocortin-1 into the extracellular space, where it binds to the leukocyte membrane receptors and inhibits various inflammatory events: epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and the release of various inflammatory mediators (lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, tissue plasminogen activator, chemokines, etc.) from neutrophils, macrophages, and mastocytes. Additionally, the immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.

11-hydrocortisone
11-beta-hydrocortisone
11-beta-hydroxycortisone
11a-hydroxycorticosterone
11alpha-hydroxycorticosterone
11b,17,21-trihydroxyprogesterone
11b-hydrocortisone
11b-hydroxycortisone
11beta,17,21-trihydroxyprogesterone
11beta-hydrocortisone
11beta-hydroxycortisone
17-hydroxycorticosterone
17a-hydroxycorticosterone
17alpha-hydroxycorticosterone
4-pregnene-11alpha,21-triol 3,20-dione
4-pregnene-11b,17a,21-triol-3,20-dione
Acticort
Aeroseb hc
Aeroseb-hc
Ala-cort
Ala-scalp
Alacort
Algicirtis
Alphaderm
Amberin
Anflam
Anti-inflammatory hormone
Aquacort
Aquanil hc
Barseb hc
Basan-corti
Caldecort spray
Cetacort
Chronocort
Clear aid
Cleiton
Cobadex
Compound f
Cor-tar-quin
Cort-dome
Cort-quin
Cortanal
Cortenema
Cortesal
Corticreme
Cortifan
Cortifoam
Cortiment
Cortisol alcohol
Cortisolonum
Cortisporin
Cortisporin otico
Cortispray
Cortizol
Cortolotion
Cortonema
Cortoxide
Cremesone
Cremicort-h
Cutisol
Delacort
Derm-aid
Dermil
Dermolate
Dihydrocostisone
Dioderm
Dome-cort
Domolene-hc
Drotic
Ef corlin
Efcorbin
Efcortelan
Efcortelin
Eldercort
Epicort
Epiderm h
Esiderm h
Evacort
Ficortril
Fiocortril
Foille insetti
Genacort
Gyno-cortisone
H-cort
Hc
Heb cort
Heb-cort
Hidalone
Hidro-colisona
Hidrocortisona
Hycort
Hycortol
Hycortole
Hydracort
Hydrasson
Hydro-adreson
Hydro-colisona
Hydrocort
Hydrocortal
Hydrocorticosterone
Hydrocortisone
Hydrocortisone alcohol
Hydrocortisone base
Hydrocortisone free alcohol
Hydrocortisonum
Hydrocortistab
Hydrocortisyl
Hydrocortone
Hydroskin
Hydroxycortisone
Hysone
Hytisone
Hytone
Hytone lotion
Idrocortisone
Incortin-h
Incortin-hydrogen
Kendall's compound f
Komed hc
Kyypakkaus
Lacticare hc
Lacticare-hc
Lactisona
Lubricort
Maintasone
Medicort
Meusicort
Mildison
Milliderm
Neo-cort-dome
Neosporin-h ear
Nutracort
Nystaform-hc
Optef
Otalgine
Otic-neo-cort-dome
Otobiotic
Otocort
Otosone-f
Pediotic suspension
Penecort
Permicort
Polcort h
Preparation h hydrocortisone cream
Prepcort
Prestwick_265
Prevex hc
Proctocort
Proctofoam
Protocort
Racet
Rectoid
Reichstein's substance m
Remederm hc
Sanatison
Scalpicin capilar
Schericur
Scheroson f
Sigmacort
Signef
Stiefcorcil
Synacort
Systral hydrocort
Tarcortin
Timocort
Topicort
Transderma h
Traumaide
Uniderm
Vioform-hydrocortisone
Vosol hc
Vytone
Zenoxone


UDP

Uridine 5'-diphosphate is a uracil nucleotide containing a pyrophosphate group esterified to C5 of the sugar moiety. UDP is an important extracellular pyrimidine signaling molecule that mediates diverse biological effects via P1 and P2 purinergic receptors, such as the uptake of thymidine and proliferation of gliomas. (PMID: 14558596). UDP induces intracellular Ca(2+) responses and oscillations in HeLa cells, due to the activation of P2Ys (G-protein coupled ATP receptors). (PMID: 1257952).

5'-udp
Udp
Uridine 5'-diphosphate
Uridine 5'-pyrophosphate
Uridine 5'-pyrophosphorate
Uridine 5'-pyrophosphoric acid
Uridine diphosphate
Uridine pyrophosphate
Uridine 5'-diphosphoric acid
Uridine diphosphoric acid


carbamoyl phosphate

Carbamoyl phosphate is a precursor of both arginine and pyrimidine biosynthesis. It is a labile and potentially toxic intermediate. Carbamoyl phosphate is a molecule that is involved in ridding the body of excess nitrogen in the urea cycle, and also in the synthesis of pyrimidines. It is produced from carbon dioxide, ammonia, and phosphate (from ATP) by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthase. -- Wikipedia.

Carbamic acid monoanhydride with phosphorate

Carbamic acid monoanhydride with phosphoric acid

Aminocarbonyl dihydrogen phosphoric acid


CTP

Cytidine 5'-(tetrahydrogen triphosphate) or CTP is a cytosine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to a ribose moiety at the 5' position. CTP is integral to the synthesis or mRNA, rRNA and tRNA through RNA polymerases. Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) is also critical to the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine via the enzyme CTP: phosphocholine cytidyltransferase. This reaction is the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine.

Cytidine mono(tetrahydrogen triphosphate) (ester)


Nicotine

Nicotine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants (Solanaceae), predominantly in tobacco and in lower quantities in tomato, potato, eggplant (aubergine), and green pepper. Nicotine alkaloids are also found in the leaves of the coca plant. Nicotine constitutes 0.3 to 5% of the tobacco plant by dry weight, with biosynthesis taking place in the root and accumulation in the leaves. It is a potent neurotoxin with particular specificity to insects; therefore nicotine was widely used as an insecticide in the past and nicotine derivatives such as imidacloprid continue to be widely used. It has been noted that the majority of people diagnosed with schizophrenia smoke tobacco. Estimates for the number of schizophrenics that smoke range from 75% to 90%. It was recently argued that the increased level of smoking in schizophrenia may be due to a desire to self-medicate with nicotine. More recent research has found the reverse: it is a risk factor without long-term benefit, used only for its short-term effects. However, research on nicotine as administered through a patch or gum is ongoing. As nicotine enters the body, it is distributed quickly through the bloodstream and can cross the blood-brain barrier. On average, it takes about seven seconds for the substance to reach the brain. The half-life of nicotine in the body is around 2 hours. The amount of nicotine inhaled with tobacco smoke is a fraction of the amount contained in the tobacco leaves (most of the substance is destroyed by the heat). The amount of nicotine absorbed by the body from smoking depends on many factors, including the type of tobacco, whether the smoke is inhaled, and whether a filter is used. For chewing tobacco, often called dip, snuff, or sinus, which is held in the mouth between the lip and gum, the amount released into the body tends to be much greater than smoked tobacco. The currently available literature indicates that nicotine, on its own, does not promote the development of cancer in healthy tissue and has no mutagenic properties. Its teratogenic properties have not yet been adequately researched, and while the likelihood of birth defects caused by nicotine is believed to be very small or nonexistent, nicotine replacement product manufacturers recommend consultation with a physician before using a nicotine patch or nicotine gum while pregnant or nursing. However, nicotine and the increased acetylcholinic activity it causes have been shown to impede apoptosis, which is one of the methods by which the body destroys unwanted cells (programmed cell death). Since apoptosis helps to remove mutated or damaged cells that may eventually become cancerous, the inhibitory actions of nicotine create a more favourable environment for cancer to develop. Thus, nicotine plays an indirect role in carcinogenesis. It is also important to note that its addictive properties are often the primary motivating factor for tobacco smoking, contributing to the proliferation of cancer. Nicotine is a highly toxic alkaloid. It is the prototypical agonist at nicotinic cholinergic receptors where it dramatically stimulates neurons and ultimately blocks synaptic transmission. Nicotine is also important medically because of its presence in tobacco smoke. Nicotine is a hygroscopic, oily liquid that is miscible with water in its base form. As a nitrogenous base, nicotine forms salts with acids that are usually solid and water soluble. Nicotine easily penetrates the skin. As shown by the physical data, free base nicotine will burn at a temperature below its boiling point, and its vapours will combust at 95°C in the air despite a low vapour pressure. Because of this, most nicotine is burned when a cigarette is smoked; however, enough is inhaled to provide the desired effects (PubChem). Nicotine is a stimulant drug that acts as an agonist at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These are ionotropic receptors composed of five homomeric or heteromeric subunits. In the brain, nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on dopaminergic neurons in the cortico-limbic pathways. This causes the channel to open and allow conductance of multiple cations including sodium, calcium, and potassium. This leads to depolarization, which activates voltage-gated calcium channels and allows more calcium to enter the axon terminal. Calcium stimulates vesicle trafficking towards the plasma membrane and the release of dopamine into the synapse. Dopamine binding to its receptors is responsible for the euphoric and addictive properties of nicotine. Nicotine also binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla. Binding opens the ion channel allowing an influx of sodium which causes depolarization of the cell and activates voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the release of epinephrine from intracellular vesicles into the bloodstream, which causes vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, and increased blood sugar. Cotinine is a byproduct of the metabolism of nicotine which remains in the blood for up to 48 hours and can be used as an indicator of a person's exposure to smoke. In high doses, nicotine will cause a blocking of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which is the reason for its toxicity and its effectiveness as an insecticide. In lower concentrations, the substance acts as a stimulant in mammals and is one of the main factors responsible for the dependence-forming and energy-boosting properties of tobacco smoking.


dihydrolipoamide

Dihydrolipoamide is an intermediate in glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, citrate cycle (TCA cycle), alanine, aspartate and pyruvate metabolism, and valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation (KEGG ID C00579). It is converted to lipoamide via the enzyme dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase [EC:1.8.1.4]. Dihydrolipoamide is also a substrate of enzyme Acyltransferases [EC 2.3.1.-]. (KEGG).


ACETYLSEROTONIN

N-Acetylserotonin is an intermediate in the metabolic pathway of melatonin and indoleamine in the pineal gland of mammalians. Serotonin-N-acetyltransferase (SNAT), which regulates the rate of melatonin biosynthesis in the pineal gland, catalyzes the acetylation of 5HT to N-acetylserotonin (NAS). A methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine is transferred to NAS by hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT), and finally NAS is converted to 5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine, or melatonin. In most mammalian species the content of NAS (and melatonin) in the pineal gland shows clear circadian changes with the highest level occurring during the dark period. This elevation of the contents of NAS (and melatonin) in the dark period is due to the increase of SNAT activity and the elevation of SNAT gene expression. Experimental studies show that N-acetylserotonin possess free radical scavenging activity. Acute administration of irreversible and reversible selective MAO-A inhibitors and high doses (or chronic administration of low doses) of relatively selective MAO-B inhibitors (but not of highly selective MAO-B inhibitors) suppressed MAO-A activity and stimulated N-acetylation of pineal serotonin into N-acetylserotonin, the immediate precursor of melatonin. N-acetylserotonin increase after MAO-A inhibitors might mediate their antidepressive and antihypertensive effects. N-Acetylserotonin is the product of the O-demethylation of melatonin mediated by cytochrome P-450 isoforms: Cytochrome p450, subfamily IIc, polypeptide 19 (CYP2C19, a clinically important enzyme that metabolizes a wide variety of drugs), with a minor contribution from Cytochrome p450, subfamily I, polypeptide (2CYP1A2, involved in O-deethylation of phenacetin). (PMID 15616152, 11103901, 10721079, 10591054).


Chloramphenicol

An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)


Adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate

Adenosine phosphosulfate (also known as APS) is the initial compound formed by the action of ATP sulfurylase (or PAPS synthetase) on sulfate ions after sulfate uptake. PAPS synthetase 1 is a bifunctional enzyme with both ATP sulfurylase and APS kinase activity, which mediates two steps in the sulfate activation pathway. The first step is the transfer of a sulfate group to ATP to yield adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (APS), and the second step is the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to APS yielding 3'-phosphoadenylylsulfate (PAPS). In mammals, PAPS is the sole source of sulfate; APS appears to be only an intermediate in the sulfate-activation pathway.

Adenylic acid monoanhydride with sulfurate

Adenylic acid monoanhydride with sulfuric acid


Mevalonic acid

(r)-mevalonate is part of the Metabolic intermediate biosynthesis, Terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, Bile secretion, Isoprenoid biosynthesis, and Peroxisome pathways. It is a substrate for: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, and Mevalonate kinase.

(r)-3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvaleric acid
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvaleric acid
Mevalonic acid
(r)-3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvalerate
(r)-mevalonic acid
3,5-dihydroxy-3-methylvalerate
Mevalonate


Xanthine

Xanthine is a purine base found in most body tissues and fluids, certain plants, and some urinary calculi. It is an intermediate in the degradation of adenosine monophosphate to uric acid, being formed by oxidation of hypoxanthine. The methylated xanthine compounds caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline and their derivatives are used in medicine for their bronchodilator effects. (Dorland, 28th ed.).


Adenosine is a nucleoside comprised of adenine attached to a ribose (ribofuranose) moiety via a -N9-glycosidic bond. Deoxyadenosine monophosphate is a derivative of the common nucleic acid ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, in which the -OH (hydroxyl) group on the 2' carbon on the nucleotide's pentose has been removed (hence the deoxy- part of the name). Additionally, the monophosphate of the name indicates that two of the phosphoryl groups of GTP have been removed, most likely by hydrolysis. Deoxyadenosine monophosphate is abbreviated dAMP. (Wikipedia).

2'-deoxyadenosine 5'-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid)


beta-D-glucose 6-phosphate

Beta-D-Glucose 6 phosphate (b-G6P) is the beta-anomer of glucose-6-phosphate. There are two anomers of glucose 6 phosphate, the alpha anomer and the beta anomer. Specifically, beta-D-Glucose 6-phosphate is glucose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. It is a very common metabolite in cells as the vast majority of glucose entering a cell will become phosphorylated in this way. The primary reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent diffusion out of the cell. The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6-phosphate cannot easily cross the cell membrane. b-G6P is involved in the glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate, and glycogen and sucrose metabolic pathways [Kegg ID: C01172]. Beta-D-Glucose 6 phosphate can be generated through beta-D-fructose phosphate or alpha-D-glucose 6 phosphate (via glucose-6-phosphate isomerase) or beta-D glucose (via hexokinase). It can then be sent off to the pentose phosphate pathway which generates the useful cofactor NADPH as well as ribulose 5-phosphate, a carbon source for the synthesis of other molecules. Alternately if the cell needs energy or carbon skeletons for synthesis then glucose 6-phosphate is targeted for glycolysis. A third route is to have glucose 6 phosphate stored or converted to glycogen, especially if blood glucose levels are high.

B-d-glucose 6-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid)

Beta-d-glucose 6-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid)

β-d-glucose 6-(dihydrogen phosphoric acid)


2,3-bisphospho-D-glyceric acid

2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG, also known as 2,3-diphosphoglycerate or 2,3-DPG) is a three carbon isomer of the glycolytic intermediate 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and is present at high levels in the human red blood cell (RBC; erythrocyte)--at the same molar concentration as hemoglobin. It is notable because it binds to deoxygenated hemoglobin in RBCs. In doing so, it allosterically upregulates the ability of RBCs to release oxygen near tissues that need it most. Its function was discovered in 1967 by Reinhold Benesch and Ruth Benesch.

2,3-diphospho-d-glyceric acid pentasodium salt

D-glyceric acid bis(dihydrogen phosphate)


dimethylglycine

Dimethylglycine (DMG) is an amino acid derivative found in the cells of all plants and animals and can be obtained in the diet in small amounts from grains and meat. The human body produces DMG when metabolizing choline into Glycine. Dimethylglycine that is not metabolized in the liver is transported by the circulatory system to body tissue. Dimethylglycine was popular with Russian athletes and cosmonauts owing to its reputed ability to increase endurance and reduce fatigue. DMG is also a byproduct of homocysteine metabolism. Homocysteine and betaine are converted to methionine and N, N-dimethylglycine by betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase.

(dimethylamino)acetate
(dimethylamino)acetic acid
2-(dimethylamino)acetate
2-(dimethylamino)acetic acid
Dimethylglycine
N,n-dimethylaminoacetate
N,n-dimethylaminoacetic acid
N,n-dimethylglycine
N-methylsarcosine n,n-dimethyl-glycine


Malonyl-CoA semialdehyde

Malonyl-CoA semialdehyde is involved in the propanoate metabolism pathway. Malonyl-CoA semialdehyde can be reversibly produced from malonyl-CoA and 3-hydroxy-propionyl-CoA. Malonic semialdehyde is formed in the alternative pathway of propionate metabolism and in the catabolism of beta-alanine. Studies of these pathways in cultured cells from a patient with mitochondrial malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency indicate that malonic semialdehyde is directly converted into acetyl-CoA in man. (PMID: 6418146).

1-thiomalonaldehydic acid s-ester with coenzyme a


desmosterol

Desmosterol is an intermediate in the synthesis of cholesterol. Desmosterolosis is a rare autosomal recessive inborn errors of cholesterol synthesis that is caused by defective activity of desmosterol reductase which results in an accumulation of demosterol (DHCR24, EC 1.3.1.72), combines a severe osteosclerotic skeletal dysplasia and includes 2-3 toe syndactyly with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS; the biochemical block in SLOS results in decreased cholesterol levels and increased 7-dehydrocholesterol levels). Desmosterolosis is caused by mutation of the 24-dehydrocholesterol reductase gene (DHCR24). Many of the malformations in SLOS and desmosterolosis are consistent with impaired hedgehog function. The hedgehog proteins include Sonic hedgehog (SHH), which plays a major role in midline patterning and limb development. Desmosterolosis, caused by defective activity of desmosterol reductase, combines a severe osteosclerotic skeletal dysplasia. 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7, EC 1.3.1.21) reduces the C7-C8 double bond in the sterol B ring to form cholesterol or desmosterol depending upon the precursor. Desmosterol can be converted to cholesterol by DHCR24. Therefore, SLOS and Desmosterolosis patients invariably have elevated levels of cholesterol precursor's 7-dehydrocholesterol (and its spontaneous isomer 8-dehydrocholesterol) and absent desmosterol. (PMID: 14631207, 16207203).


Thymidine

Thymidine is non-toxic and is a naturally occurring compound that exists in all living organisms and DNA viruses. 25% of DNA is composed of thymidine. RNA does not have thymidine and has uridine instead. Thymidine is a chemical compound which is a pyrimidine nucleoside. Thymidine is the DNA base T, which pairs with adenosine in double stranded DNA.


Betaine

Betaine (or N,N,N-trimethylglycine) was named after its discovery in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) in the 19th century. It is a small N-trimethylated amino acid, existing in zwitterionic form at neutral pH. It is now often called glycine betaine to distinguish it from other betaines that are widely distributed in microorganisms, plants, and animals. Many naturally occurring betaines serve as organic osmolytes, substances synthesized or taken up from the environment by cells for protection against osmotic stress, drought, high salinity, or high temperature. Intracellular accumulation of betaines permits water retention in cells, thus protecting from the effects of dehydration (Wikipedia). Betaine functions as a methyl donor in that it carries and donates methyl functional groups to facilitate necessary chemical processes. In particular, it methylates homocysteine to methionine, also producing N,N-dimethylglycine. The donation of methyl groups is important to proper liver function, cellular replication, and detoxification reactions. Betaine also plays a role in the manufacture of carnitine and serves to protect the kidneys from damage. Betaine comes from either the diet or by the oxidation of choline. Betaine insufficiency is associated with metabolic syndrome, lipid disorders, and diabetes, and may have a role in vascular and other diseases (PMID: 20346934). Betaine is important in development, from the pre-implantation embryo to infancy. Betaine is also widely regarded as an anti-oxidant. Betaine has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on NO release in activated microglial cells and may be an effective therapeutic component to control neurological disorders (PMID: 22801281). As a drug, betaine hydrochloride has been used as a source of hydrochloric acid in the treatment of hypochlorhydria. Betaine has also been used in the treatment of liver disorders, for hyperkalemia, for homocystinuria, and for gastrointestinal disturbances (Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th Ed, p1341).

(carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide inner salt


7-Dehydrocholesterol is a zoosterol (a sterol produced by animals rather than plants). It is a provitamin-D. The presence of this compound in skin enables humans to manufacture vitamin D3 from ultraviolet rays via an intermediate isomer provitamin D3. It is also found in breast milk.


Uric acid

Uric acid is a heterocyclic purine derivative that is the final oxidation product of purine metabolism. It is produced by the enzyme xanthine oxidase, which oxidizes oxypurines such as xanthine into uric acid. In most mammals, except humans and higher primates, the enzyme uricase further oxidizes uric acid to allantoin. Uric acid is also the end product of nitrogen metabolism in birds and reptiles. In such species, it is excreted in feces as a dry mass. Humans produce only small quantities of uric acid with excess accumulation leading to a type of arthritis known as gout. The loss of uricase in higher primates parallels the similar loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbic acid vitamin C. This may be because in higher primates uric acid partially replaces ascorbic acid.


Oxitriptan

5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan is an aromatic amino acid naturally produced by the body from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. 5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan is the immediate precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. The conversion to serotonin is catalyzed by the enzyme aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.28) (AADC1 also known as DOPA decarboxylase), an essential enzyme in the metabolism of the monoamine neurotransmitters. An accumulation of 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan in cerebrospinal fluid occurs in aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADC deficiency) (OMIM: 608643) accompanied by an increased excretion in the urine of the patients, which are indicative of the disorder but not specific. 5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan is also increased in other disorders such as in Parkinson's patients with severe postural instability and gait disorders. The amount of endogenous 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan available for serotonin synthesis depends on the availability of tryptophan and on the activity of various enzymes, especially tryptophan hydroxylase (EC 1.14.16.4), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.52), and tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) (EC 1.13.11.11). 5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan has been used clinically for over 30 years. In addition to its use in the treatment of depression, the therapeutic administration of 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan has been shown to be effective in treating a wide variety of conditions, including fibromyalgia, insomnia, binge eating associated with obesity, cerebellar ataxia, and chronic headaches. 5-Hydroxy-L-tryptophan easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and effectively increases central nervous system (CNS) synthesis of serotonin. Supplementation with 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan is hypothesized to normalize serotonin synthesis, which is putatively related to its antidepressant properties (PMID: 9295177, 17240182, 16023217). When present in sufficiently high levels, 5-hydroxytryptophan can be a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural cells or tissue. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Signs and symptoms of AADC deficiency generally appear in the first year of life. Affected infants may have severe developmental delay, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), muscle stiffness, difficulty moving, and involuntary writhing movements of the limbs (athetosis). They may be lacking in energy (lethargic), feed poorly, startle easily, and have sleep disturbances. Since 5-hydroxytryptophan is a precursor to serotonin, altered levels of serotonin can accumulate in the brain, which leads to abnormal neural signalling. Infants with AADC deficiency have very low levels of neural signalling molecules while individuals who consume high levels of 5-hydroxytryptophan will have very high levels of neural signalling molecules. Both conditions can lead to vomiting, nausea, extreme drowsiness, and lethargy. 5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), also known as oxitriptan (INN) is sold over-the-counter in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada as a dietary supplement for use as an antidepressant, appetite suppressant, and sleep aid. It is also marketed in many European countries for the indication of major depression under trade names such as Cincofarm, Levothym, Levotonine, Oxyfan, Telesol, Tript-OH, and Triptum. Several double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials have demonstrated the effectiveness of 5-HTP in the treatment of depression, though a lack of high-quality studies has been noted. More and larger studies are needed to determine if 5-HTP is truly effective in treating depression.


dyspropterin

Dyspropterin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pterins and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pterin moiety, which consist of a pteridine ring bearing a ketone and an amine group to form 2-aminopteridin-4(3H)-one. Dyspropterin is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Dyspropterin has been found in human placenta tissue. Within the cell, dyspropterin is primarily located in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm. Dyspropterin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, dyspropterin is involved in pterine biosynthesis pathway. Dyspropterin is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include hyperphenylalaninemia due to 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase deficiency (PTPS), the dopa-responsive dystonia pathway, the segawa syndrome pathway, and hyperphenylalaniemia due to guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase deficiency. Dyspropterin, an intermediate formed from dihydroneopterin triphosphate in the biosynthetic pathway of tetrahydrobiopterin.


IDP

IDP, also known as riboxin or 5'-idp, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are purine ribobucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. IDP is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, IDP is primarily located in the mitochondria and nucleus. IDP exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, IDP is involved in the thioguanine action pathway, the azathioprine action pathway, the purine metabolism pathway, and the mercaptopurine action pathway. IDP is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the xanthinuria type I pathway, the gout or kelley-seegmiller syndrome pathway, xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria), and the AICA-ribosiduria pathway. IDP is an inosine nucleotide containing a pyrophosphate group esterified to C5 of the sugar moiety.

5'-idp
Idp
Inosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate)
Inosine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate)
Inosine 5'-diphosphate
Inosine 5'-pyrophosphate
Inosine diphosphate
Inosine pyrophosphate
Riboxin
Riboxine


4,4-Dimethylcholesta-8,14,24-trienol is a product of the enzyme delta14-sterol reductase [EC 1.3.1.70] (KEGG). It is involved in the biosynthesis of steroids and is involved in the conversion of lanosterol to zymosterol. In particular, lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase, catalyzes the C-14 demethylation of lanosterol to form 4,4-Dimethylcholesta-8,14,24-trienol in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway. It is thought to be a meiosis activating sterol.

Follicular fluid meiosis activating sterol


1D-Myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate is a substrate for Inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase, Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate 5-phosphatase A, Skeletal muscle and kidney enriched inositol phosphatase and Type I inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate 5-phosphatase.

1d-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate
D-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate
Inositol 1,4-bisphosphate
Myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphate
D-myo-inositol-1,4-bisphosphate
D-myo-inositol 1,4-bisphosphoric acid


Thymine

One of the pyrimidine bases of living matter. Derivation: Hydrolysis of deoxyribonucleic acid, from methylcyanoacetylurea by catalytic reduction. Use: Biochemical research. (Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary). Thymine is a pyrimidine nucleobase. As the name implies, thymine may be derived by methylation of uracil at the 5th carbon. Thymine is found in the nucleic acid DNA. In RNA thymine is replaced with uracil in most cases. In DNA, thymine binds to adenine via two hydrogen bonds to assist in stabilizing the nucleic acid structures.


methylarsonite

Methylarsonite is found in the arsenate detoxification I pathway. Two molecules of glutathione reacts with methylarsonate to produce glutathione disulfide and methylarsonite. Methylarsonate reductase catalyzes this reaction. Methylarsonite reacts with S-adenosyl-L-methionine to produce S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine and dimethylarsinate. Methylarsonite methyltransferase catalyzes this reaction.

Meas(oh)2
Methanearsonous acid
Methyl arsonous acid
Methylarsonous acid
Mma(iii)
Mmaiii
Monomethylarsonous acid


2-phospho-D-glyceric acid

2-Phospho-D-glycerate or 2PG is an intermediate in gluconeogenesis. It is a glyceric acid which serves as the substrate in the ninth step of glycolysis. 2PG is converted by enolase into phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), the penultimate step in the conversion of glucose to pyruvate. More specifically, 2PG can be generated from Glycerate-3-phosphate via phosphoglycerate mutase or from phosphoenolpyrvate via alpha enolase.


oxiglutatione

Oxidized glutathione is a glutathione dimer formed by a disulfide bond between the cysteine sulfhydryl side chains during the course of being oxidized. glutathione participates in leukotriene synthesis and is a cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. It is also important as a hydrophilic molecule that is added to lipophilic toxins and waste in the liver during biotransformation before they can become part of the bile. glutathione is also needed for the detoxification of methylglyoxal, a toxin produced as a by-product of metabolism. This detoxification reaction is carried out by the glyoxalase system. Glyoxalase I (EC 4.4.1.5) catalyzes the conversion of methylglyoxal and reduced glutathione to S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione. Glyoxalase II (EC 3.1.2.6) catalyzes the hydrolysis of S-D-Lactoyl-glutathione to glutathione and D-lactate.


3-Dehydrosphinganine, also known as ketodihydrosphingosine or KDHS, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as beta-hydroxy ketones. These are ketones containing a hydroxyl group attached to the beta-carbon atom, relative to the C=O group. Thus, 3-dehydrosphinganine is considered to be a sphingoid base lipid molecule. 3-Dehydrosphinganine is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Within the cell, 3-dehydrosphinganine is primarily located in the cytoplasm, membrane (predicted from logP) and mitochondria. In humans, 3-dehydrosphinganine is involved in the globoid cell leukodystrophy pathway, the sphingolipid metabolism pathway, and the metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD) pathway. 3-Dehydrosphinganine is also involved in a few metabolic disorders, which include the fabry disease pathway, the gaucher disease pathway, and the krabbe disease pathway. 3-Dehydrosphinganine is an intermediate in the metabolism of Glycosphingolipids. It is a substrate for Serine palmitoyltransferase 1 and Serine palmitoyltransferase 2.


FADH is the reduced form of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). FAD is synthesized from riboflavin and two molecules of ATP. Riboflavin is phosphorylated by ATP to give riboflavin 5-phosphate (FMN). FAD is then formed from FMN by the transfer of an AMP moiety from a second molecule of ATP. FADH is generated in each round of fatty acid oxidation, and the fatty acyl chain is shortened by two carbon atoms as a result of these reactions; because oxidation is on the beta carbon, this series of reactions is called the beta-oxidation pathway. In the citric acid cycle FADH is involved in harvesting of high-energy electrons from carbon fuels; citric acid cycle itself neither generates a large amount of ATP nor includes oxygen as a reactant. Instead, the citric acid cycle removes electrons from acetyl CoA and uses these electrons to form FADH. (Biochemistry. Berg, Jeremy M. Tymoczko, John L. and Stryer, Lubert. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. 2002.).

1,5-dihydro-riboflavin 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate) p'->5'-ester with adenosine

Adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate), 5'-5'-ester with 5,10-dihydro-7,8-dimethyl-10-(d-ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)alloxazine

Adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate), 5'->5'-ester with 5,10-dihydro-7,8-dimethyl-10-(d-ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)alloxazine

Adenosine pyrophosphate 5'-5'-ester with 5,10-dihydro-7,8-dimethyl-10-(d-ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)alloxazine

Adenosine pyrophosphate, 5'-5'-ester with 5,10-dihydro-7,8-dimethyl-10-(d-ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)alloxazine

Adenosine pyrophosphate, 5'->5'-ester with 5,10-dihydro-7,8-dimethyl-10-(d-ribo-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxypentyl)alloxazine

Benzo[g]pteridine riboflavin 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate) deriv

Benzo[gr]pteridine riboflavin 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate) deriv


Phenylacetylglutamine is a product formed from the conjugation of phenylacetate and glutamine. Technically, it is the amino acid acetylation product of phenylacetate (or phenylbutyrate after beta-oxidation). Phenylacetylglutamine is a normal constituent of human urine, but other mammals such as the dog, cat, rat, monkey, sheep, and horse do not excrete this compound. Phenylacetyl-CoA and L-glutamine react to form phenylacetylglutamine and coenzyme A. The enzyme (glutamine N-acetyl transferase) that catalyzes this reaction has been purified from human liver mitochondria and shown to be a polypeptide species distinct from glycine-N-acyltransferase. Phenylacetylglutamine is a major nitrogenous metabolite that accumulates in uremia (PMID: 2791363, 8972626). It has been shown that over 50% of urine phenylacetylglutamine may be derived from kidney conjugation of free plasma phenylacetic acid and/or from the kidney's preferential filtration of conjugated phenylacetic acid (PMID: 6420430).


Tyrosine

Tyrosine is an essential amino acid that readily passes the blood-brain barrier. Once in the brain, it is a precursor for the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine, better known as adrenalin. These neurotransmitters are an important part of the body's sympathetic nervous system, and their concentrations in the body and brain are directly dependent upon dietary tyrosine. Tyrosine is not found in large concentrations throughout the body, probably because it is rapidly metabolized. Folic acid, copper and vitamin C are cofactor nutrients of these reactions. Tyrosine is also the precursor for hormones, thyroid, catecholestrogens and the major human pigment, melanin. Tyrosine is an important amino acid in many proteins, peptides and even enkephalins, the body's natural pain reliever. Valine and other branched amino acids, and possibly tryptophan and phenylalanine may reduce tyrosine absorption. A number of genetic errors of tyrosine metabolism occur. Most common is the increased amount of tyrosine in the blood of premature infants, which is marked by decreased motor activity, lethargy and poor feeding. Infection and intellectual deficits may occur. Vitamin C supplements reverse the disease. Some adults also develop elevated tyrosine in their blood. This indicates a need for more vitamin C. More tyrosine is needed under stress, and tyrosine supplements prevent the stress-induced depletion of norepinephrine and can cure biochemical depression. However, tyrosine may not be good for psychosis. Many antipsychotic medications apparently function by inhibiting tyrosine metabolism. L-dopa, which is directly used in Parkinson's, is made from tyrosine. Tyrosine, the nutrient, can be used as an adjunct in the treatment of Parkinson's. Peripheral metabolism of tyrosine necessitates large doses of tyrosine, however, compared to L-dopa. (http://www.dcnutrition.com).


RETINAL

Vitamin A (all-trans retinol) is converted in the retina to the 11-cis-isomer of retinaldehyde or 11-cis-retinal. 11-cis-retinal functions in the retina in the transduction of light into the neural signals necessary for vision. 11-cis-retinal, while attached to opsin in rhodopsin is isomerized to all-trans-retinal by light. This is the event that triggers the nerve impulse to the brain which allows for the perception of light. All-trans-retinal is then released from opsin and reduced to all-trans-retinol. All-trans-retinol is isomerized to 11-cis-retinol in the dark, and then oxidized to 11-cis-retinal. 11-cis-retinal recombines with opsin to re-form rhodopsin. Night blindness or defective vision at low illumination results from a failure to resynthesize 11-cis retinal rapidly (http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/vit_0260.shtml).


7a-Hydroxy-cholestene-3-one is a metabolite in bile acid synthesis. It is derived from 7a-hydroxy-cholesterol and can be further metabolized to 7a,12a,-dihydroxy-cholest-4-en-3-one. Analysis of 7a-Hydroxycholestene-3-one (HCO) in serum may serve as a novel, simple, and sensitive method for the detection of bile acid malabsorption in patients with chronic diarrhea of unknown origin (PMID 9952217).


Umanopterin

Neopterin is a pteridine derivative present in body fluids; elevated levels result from immune system activation, malignant disease, allograft rejection, and viral infections. (From Stedman, 26th ed) Neopterin also serves as a precursor in the biosynthesis of biopterin.


aminoacetone

Threonine dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of threonine by NAD+ to glycine and acetyl-CoA, but when the ratio acetyl-CoA/CoA increases in nutritional deprivation (e.g., in diabetes) the enzyme produces aminoacetone (Chem. Res. Toxicol., 14 (9), 1323 -1329, 2001). Aminoacetone is thought to be a substrate for SSAO (semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase), leading to the production of the toxic product methylglyoxal (Journal of Chromatography B. Volume 824, Issues 1-2 , 25 September 2005, Pages 116-122 ).


Sorbitol

Sorbitol is a polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications. Ascorbic acid fermentation; in solution form for moisture-conditioning of cosmetic creams and lotions, toothpaste, tobacco, gelatin; bodying agent for paper, textiles, and liquid pharmaceuticals; softener for candy; sugar crystallization inhibitor; surfactants; urethane resins and rigid foams; plasticizer, stabilizer for vinyl resins; food additive (sweetener, humectant, emulsifier, thickener, anticaking agent); dietary supplement. (Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary) Biological Source: Occurs widely in plants ranging from algae to the higher orders. Fruits of the plant family Rosaceae, which include apples, pears, cherries, apricots, contain appreciable amounts. Rich sources are the fruits of the Sorbus and Crataegus species Use/Importance: Used for manufacturing of sorbose, propylene glycol, ascorbic acid, resins, plasticizers and as antifreeze mixtures with glycerol or glycol. Tablet diluent, sweetening agent and humectant, other food uses. Sorbitol is used in photometric determination of Ru(VI) and Ru(VIII); in acid-base titration of borate (Dictionary of Organic Compounds).

(-)-sorbitol
D-glucitol
D-sorbitol
D-sorbol
Diakarmon
Esasorb
Foodol d 70
Glucarine
Glucitol
Karion
Karion instant
Kyowa powder 50m
L-gulitol
Multitol
Neosorb
Neosorb 20/60dc
Neosorb 70/02
Neosorb 70/70
Neosorb p 20/60
Neosorb p 60
Neosorb p 60w
Nivitin
Resulax
Sionit
Sionit k
Sionite
Sionon
Siosan
Sorbex m
Sorbex r
Sorbex rp
Sorbex s
Sorbex x
Sorbilande
Sorbilax
Sorbit
Sorbit d 70
Sorbit d-powder
Sorbit dp
Sorbit dp 50
Sorbit kyowa powder 50m
Sorbit l 70
Sorbit s
Sorbit t 70
Sorbit w 70
Sorbit w-powder
Sorbit w-powder 50
Sorbit wp
Sorbite
Sorbitol f
Sorbitol fk
Sorbitol fp
Sorbitol s
Sorbitol syrup c
Sorbitur
Sorbo
Sorbogem 712
Sorbol
Sorbostyl
(2r,3r,4r,5s)-hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol
D-(-)-sorbitol
D-sorbit
E 420
E-420
E420
G-ol
Glc-ol


alpha-D-glucose

Alpha-D-Glucose, also known as alpha-dextrose or alpha-D-GLC, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hexoses. These are monosaccharides in which the sugar unit is a is a six-carbon containing moeity. Alpha-D-Glucose exists as a solid, soluble (in water), and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Alpha-D-Glucose has been found in human epidermis and intestine tissues, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as feces and saliva. Within the cell, Alpha-D-glucose is primarily located in the cytoplasm. Alpha-D-Glucose exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Alpha-D-Glucose participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, Alpha-D-Glucose and Beta-D-glucose can be biosynthesized from α,α-trehalose; which is mediated by the enzyme cytoplasmic trehalase. Furthermore, Beta-D-Glucose and Alpha-D-glucose can be biosynthesized from α,α-trehalose; which is catalyzed by the enzyme periplasmic trehalase. Furthermore, Alpha-D-Glucose can be converted into α-D-glucose 6-phosphate through its interaction with the enzyme glucose PTS permease. Finally, Alpha-D-Glucose can be converted into α-D-glucose 6-phosphate; which is catalyzed by the enzyme glucose PTS permease. In humans, Alpha-D-glucose is involved in the nucleotide sugars metabolism pathway, the starch and sucrose metabolism pathway, the fructose intolerance, hereditary pathway, and the fructose and mannose degradation pathway. Alpha-D-Glucose is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the glycogenosis, type ia. von gierke disease pathway, sucrase-isomaltase deficiency, fructose-1,6-diphosphatase deficiency, and the mucopolysaccharidosis vi. sly syndrome pathway. Outside of the human body, Alpha-D-glucose can be found in a number of food items such as naranjilla, shallot, apple, and peach (var.). This makes Alpha-D-glucose a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Alpha-D-Glucose is a primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.

Hexopyranose A-d-glucopyranose A-d-glucose A-dextrose A-glucose Alpha-d-glucopyranose Alpha-d-glucose Alpha-dextrose Alpha-glucose Alpha-delta-glucopyranose Alpha-delta-glucose Alpha-d-glc A-d-glc α-d-glc α-d-glucose α-dextrose


Malonic semialdehyde is formed in the alternative pathway of propionate metabolism and in the catabolism of beta-alanine. Studies done on these pathways in cultured cells from a patient with mitochondrial malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency show that malonic semialdehyde is directly converted into acetyl-CoA in man. (PMID: 6418146).

3-oxopropanoate
3-oxopropanoic acid
3-oxopropionic acid
Formyl acetate
Formyl acetic acid
Formylacetic acid
Malonaldehydic acid
Malonate semialdehyde
Formylacetate


CDP-diacylglycerol

CDP-DG(16:0/16:0) belongs to the family of CDP-diacylglycerols. It is a glycerophospholipid containing a diacylglycerol, with a cytidine diphosphate attached to the oxygen O1 or O2 of the glycerol part. As is the case with diacylglycerols, phosphatidylserines can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached to the C-1 and C-2 positions. CDP-DG(16:0/16:0), in particular, consists of two hexadecanoyl chain at positions C-1 and C2. In E. coli glycerophospholipid metabolism, The biosynthesis of CDP-diacylglycerol (CDP-DG) involves condensation of phosphatidic acid (PA) and cytidine triphosphate, with elimination of pyrophosphate, catalysed by the enzyme CDP-diacylglycerol synthase. The resulting CDP-diacylglycerol can be utilized immediately for the synthesis of phosphatidylglycerol (PG), and thence cardiolipin (CL), and of phosphatidylinositol (PI). CDP-DG(16:0/16:0)  is also a substrate of CDP-diacylglycerol pyrophosphatase. It is involved in CDP-diacylglycerol degradation pathway.


Galactose 1-phosphate is a member of the class of compounds known as monosaccharide phosphates. Monosaccharide phosphates are monosaccharides comprising a phosphated group linked to the carbohydrate unit. Galactose 1-phosphate is an intermediate in the galactose metabolism and nucleotide sugars metabolism pathways (KEGG). It is formed from galactose by galactokinase (Wikipedia). Galactose 1-phosphate is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.


ICHIBA ACID

3-Hydroxy-2-methylpyridine-4,5-dicarboxylate is an intermediate in vitamin B6 metabolism(KEGG ID C04604). It is the third to last step in the synthesis of succinate semialdehyde, which is an intermediate in butanoate metabolism. 3-Hydroxy-2-methylpyridine-4,5-dicarboxylate is generated from 2-Methyl-3-hydroxy-5-formylpyridine-4-carboxylate and is then converted to 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine-5-carboxylate.


3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate. Key intermediate in the formation by living cells of sulfate esters of phenols, alcohols, steroids, sulfated polysaccharides, and simple esters, such as choline sulfate. It is formed from sulfate ion and ATP in a two-step process. This compound also is an important step in the process of sulfur fixation in plants and microorganisms.


Adenosine 3',5'-diphosphate

Adenosine 3', 5'-diphosphate or PAP is a nucleotide that is closely related to ADP. It has two phosphate groups attached to the 5' and 3' positions of the pentose sugar ribose (instead of pyrophosphoric acid at the 5' position, as found in ADP), and the nucleobase adenine. PAP is converted to PAPS by Sulfotransferase and then back to PAP after the sulfotransferase reaction. Sulfotransferase (STs) catalyze the transfer reaction of the sulfate group from the ubiquitous donor 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) to an acceptor group of numerous substrates. This reaction, often referred to as sulfuryl transfer, sulfation, or sulfonation, is widely observed from bacteria to humans and plays a key role in various biological processes such as cell communication, growth and development, and defense. PAP also appears to a role in bipolar depression. Phosphatases converting 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate (PAP) into adenosine 5'-phosphate are of fundamental importance in living cells as the accumulation of PAP is toxic to several cellular systems. These enzymes are lithium-sensitive and we have characterized a human PAP phosphatase as a potential target of lithium therapy.


Sucrose

Sucrose is a nonreducing disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked via their anomeric carbons. It is obtained commercially from sugarcane, sugar beet (beta vulgaris), and other plants and used extensively as a food and a sweetener. Sucrose is derived by crushing and extraction of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) with water or extraction of the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) with water, evaporating, and purifying with lime, carbon, and various liquids. Sucrose is also obtainable from sorghum. Sucrose occurs in low percentages in honey and maple syrup. Sucrose is used as a sweetener in foods and soft drinks, in the manufacture of syrups, in invert sugar, confectionery, preserves and jams, demulcent, pharmaceutical products, and caramel. Sucrose is also a chemical intermediate for detergents, emulsifying agents, and other sucrose derivatives. Sucrose is wiidespread in seeds, leaves, fruits, flowers and roots of plants, where it functions as an energy store for metabolism and as a carbon source for biosynthesis. The annual world production of sucrose is in excess of 90 million tons mainly from the juice of sugar cane (20%) and sugar beet (17%). In addition to its use as a sweetner, sucrose is used in food products as a preservative, antioxidant, moisture control agent, stabilizer and thickening agent.


Chloride ion

Under standard conditions, chlorine exists as a diatomic molecule. Chlorine is a highly toxic, pale yellow-green gas that has a specific strong smell. In nature, chlorine is most abundant as a chloride ion. Physiologically, this it. exists as an ion in the body. The chloride ion is an essential anion that the body needs for many critical functions. It also helps keep the body's acid-base balance. The amount of chloride in the blood is carefully controlled by the kidneys. Chloride ions have important physiological roles. For instance, in the central nervous system, the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl- into specific neurons. Also, the chloride-bicarbonate exchanger biological transport protein relies on the chloride ion to increase the blood's capacity of carbon dioxide, in the form of the bicarbonate ion. Chloride-transporting proteins (CLC) play fundamental roles in many tissues in the plasma membrane as well as in intracellular membranes. CLC proteins form a gene family that comprises nine members in mammals, at least four of which are involved in human genetic diseases. GABA(A) receptors are pentameric complexes that function as ligand-gated chloride ion channels. WNK kinases are a family of serine-threonine kinases that have been shown to play an essential role in the regulation of electrolyte homeostasis, and they are found in diverse epithelia throughout the body that are involved in chloride ion flux. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by alterations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTCR) gene that result in deranged sodium and chloride ion transport channels. (PMID: 17539703, 17729441, 17562499, 15300163) (For a complete review see Evans, Richard B. Chlorine: state of the art. Lung (2005), 183(3), 151-167. PMID: 16078037).

Bertholite
Chloor
Chlor
Chlore
Chloride
Chloride ion
Chlorine
Chlorine gas
Cl
Cl2
Diatomic chlorine
Dichlorine
Molecular chlorine
Chloride(1-)
Chlorine anion
Cl(-)


4-Methylpentanal, also known as isocaproaldehyde or isohexanal, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha-hydrogen aldehydes. These are aldehydes with the general formula HC(H)(R)C(=O)H, where R is an organyl group. 4-Methylpentanal is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely weak acidic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, 4-methylpentanal is primarily located in the mitochondria and cytoplasm. In humans, 4-methylpentanal is involved in the steroidogenesis pathway. 4-Methylpentanal is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include 3-Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency, corticosterone methyl oxidase II deficiency - cmo II, adrenal hyperplasia type 5 or congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 17 Alpha-hydroxylase deficiency, and the apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome pathway. 4-Methylpentanal is an intermediate in the metabolism of C21-Steroid hormone. It is a substrate for Cytochrome P450 11A1 (mitochondrial).


NADP(+)

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5-phosphate (NMN) coupled by pyrophosphate linkage to the 5-phosphate adenosine 2,5-bisphosphate. It serves as an electron carrier in a number of reactions, being alternately oxidized (NADP+) and reduced (NADPH). (Dorland, 27th ed.) Hydrogen carrier in biochemical redox systems. In the hexose monophosphoric acid system it is reduced to Dihydrocoenzyme II and reoxidation in the presence of flavoproteins (Dictionary of Organic Compounds).

B-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Oxidized nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate

B-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphoric acid

Beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphoric acid

β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphoric acid


Fumaric acid

Fumaric acid is a precursor to L-malate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is converted by fumarase to malate. A fumarate is a salt or ester of the organic compound fumaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid. (wikipedia).

(2e)-but-2-enedioate
(2e)-but-2-enedioic acid
(e)-2-butenedioate
(e)-2-butenedioic acid
2-(e)-butenedioate
2-(e)-butenedioic acid
Allomaleate
Allomaleic acid
Boletate
Boletic acid
Fc 33
Fumarate
Fumaric acid
Lichenate
Lichenic acid
Sodium fumarate
Trans-1,2-ethylenedicarboxylate
Trans-1,2-ethylenedicarboxylic acid
Trans-2-butenedioate
Trans-2-butenedioic acid
Trans-butenedioate
Trans-butenedioic acid
(2e)-2-butenedioic acid
E297
Fumarsaeure
Trans-but-2-enedioic acid
(2e)-2-butenedioate
Trans-but-2-enedioate


4-Trimethylammoniobutanal is a substrate for Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (cytosolic), Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (mitochondrial), Aldehyde dehydrogenase (mitochondrial), Fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, 4-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase, Aldehyde dehydrogenase (dimeric NADP-preferring), Aldehyde dehydrogenase family 7 member A1, Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A3 and Aldehyde dehydrogenase X (mitochondrial).


thiocyanate

Thiocyanate is analogous to the cyanate ion, [OCN]-, wherein oxygen is replaced by sulfur. [SCN]- is one of the pseudohalogens, due to the similarity of its reactions to that of halide ions. Thiocyanate was formerly known as rhodanide (from a Greek word for rose) because of the red color of its complexes with iron. Thiocyanates are typically colorless. Cyanide ions can react with cystine to yield thicocyanate. This reaction occurs to a slight extent even in neutral solution, but is more pronounced in alkaline solutions of cystine. In addition to this non-enzymatic route, cyanide produced in vivo can be converted in part to thiocyanate by sulfur transferase systems. The thiocyanate ion can be oxidized at acid pH by hydrogen peroxide to generate sulfate and cyanide. The reaction is catalyzed by hemoglobin acting as a peroxidase.

Rhodanide
Scn
Ammonium rhodanate
Ammonium rhodanide
Ammonium sulfocyanate
Hscn
Hydrogen thiocyanate
Nitridosulfanidocarbon
Rhodanid
Silver thiocyanate agscn
Thallium thiocyanate
Thiocyanate ion
Thiocyanic acid
Thiocyanid
Weedazol tl
[s-c#n](-)
N#c-s(-)
Scn(-)
Thiocyanate ion (1-)
Thiozyanat


diglyceride

DG(16:1(9Z)/22:0/0:0) belongs to the family of Diacylglycerols. These are glycerolipids lipids containing a common glycerol backbone to which at least one fatty acyl group is esterified. DG(16:1(9Z)/22:0/0:0) is also a substrate of diacylglycerol kinase. It is involved in the phospholipid metabolic pathway.


3-oxolauric acid

In humans fatty acids are predominantly formed in the liver and adipose tissue, and mammary glands during lactation. 3-Oxo-Dodecanoic acid is an intermediate in fatty acid biosynthesis. Specifically, 3-Oxo-Dodecanoic acid is converted form Malonic acid via three enzymes; 3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] synthase, fatty-acid Synthase and beta-ketoacyl -acyl-carrier-protein synthase II. (EC:2.3.1.41, E.C: 2.3.1.85, 2.3.1.179).


Lactaldehyde

L-lactaldehyde is an intermediate metabolite in the pyruvate metabolism pathway. L-lactaldehyde is irreversibly produced from pyruvaldehyde via the enzyme aldehyde reductase (EC:1.1.1.21) which is then irreversibly converted to propylene glycol via aldehyde reductase (EC:1.1.1.21).


Dihydrolipoate

Dihydrolipoic acid is an organic compound that is the reduced form of lipoic acid. This carboxylic acid features a pair of thiol groups. It is optically active but only the R-enantiomer is biochemically significant. The lipoic acid/dihydrolipoic acid pair participate in a variety of biochemical transformations.( from Wiki). Inside the cell, alpha lipoic acid is readily reduced or broken down to dihydrolipoic acid. Dihydrolipoic acid is even more potent than alpha lipoic acid, neutralizing free radicals, preventing them from causing harm. It directly destroys damaging superoxide radicals, hydroperoxy radicals and hydroxyl radicals. It has been shown in vitro that dihydrolipoate (DL-6,8-dithioloctanoic acid) has antioxidant activity against microsomal lipid peroxidation.Dihydrolipoate is tested for its neuroprotective activity using models of hypoxic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in vitro and rodent models of cerebral ischemia in vivo. Dihydrolipoate, similarly to dimethylthiourea, is able to protect neurons against ischemic damage by diminishing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species within the cerebral tissue.(PMID: 1345759).

6,8-bis-sulfanyloctanoate
6,8-bis-sulfanyloctanoic acid
6,8-dihydrothioctic acid
6,8-dimercapto-octanoate
6,8-dimercapto-octanoic acid
6,8-dimercaptooctanoate
6,8-dimercaptooctanoic acid
6,8-disulfanyloctanoate
6,8-disulfanyloctanoic acid
D,l-dihydrolipoate
D,l-dihydrolipoic acid
Dhla
Dihydro-dl-alpha-lipoate
Dihydro-dl-alpha-lipoic acid
Dihydro-lipoate
Dihydro-lipoic acid
Dihydro-thioctic acid
Dihydro-thiocytic acid
Dihydro-a-lipoate
Dihydro-a-lipoic acid
Dihydro-alpha-lipoate
Dihydro-alpha-lipoic acid
Dihydrolipoate
Dihydrolipoic acid
Dihydrothioctic acid
Dl-dihydro-a-6-thioctic acid
Dl-dihydro-alpha-6-thioctic acid
Reduced dl-6,8-thioctic acid
Reduced lipoate
Reduced lipoic acid
Reduced thioctic acid
6,8-bis-sulphanyloctanoate
6,8-bis-sulphanyloctanoic acid
6,8-dihydrothioctate
Dihydro-α-lipoate
Dihydro-α-lipoic acid
Dihydrothioctate


L-Glutamine

Glutamine (Gln) is one of the 20 amino acids encoded by the standard genetic code. Its side chain is an amide; it is formed by replacing a side-chain hydroxyl of glutamic acid with an amine functional group. glutamine is found in foods high in proteins, such as fish, red meat, beans, and dairy products. glutamine is a supplement that is used in weightlifting, bodybuilding, endurance and other sports, as well as by those who suffer from muscular cramps or pain particularly elderly people. The main use of glutamine within the diet of either group is as a means of replenishing the body's stores of amino acids that have been used during exercise or everyday activities. Studies which are looking into problems with excessive consumption of glutamine thus far have proved inconclusive. However, normal supplementation is healthy mainly because glutamine is supposed to be supplemented after prolonged periods of exercise (for example, a workout or exercise in which amino acids are required for use) and replenishes amino acid stores; this being the main reason glutamine is recommended during fasting or for people who suffer from physical trauma, immune deficiencies, or cancer. There is a significant body of evidence that links glutamine-enriched diets with intestinal effects; aiding maintenance of gut barrier function, intestinal cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as generally reducing septic morbidity and the symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome. The reason for such "cleansing" properties is thought to stem from the fact that the intestinal extraction rate of glutamine is higher than that for other amino acids, and is therefore thought to be the most viable option when attempting to alleviate conditions relating to the gastrointestinal tract. These conditions were discovered after comparing plasma concentration within the gut between glutamine-enriched and non glutamine-enriched diets. However, even though glutamine is thought to have "cleansing" properties and effects, it is unknown to what extent glutamine has clinical benefits, due to the varied concentrations of glutamine in varieties of food. It is also known that glutamine has various effects in reducing healing time after operations. Hospital waiting times after abdominal surgery are reduced by providing parenteral nutrition regimens containing amounts of glutamine to patients. Clinical trials have revealed that patients on supplementation regimes containing glutamine have improved nitrogen balances, generation of cysteinyl-leukotrienes from polymorphonuclear neutrophil granulocytes and improved lymphocyte recovery and intestinal permeability (in postoperative patients) - in comparison to those who had no glutamine within their dietary regime; all without any side-effects. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glutamine).

(2s)-2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoate
(2s)-2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoic acid
(2s)-2-amino-4-carbamoylbutanoate
(2s)-2-amino-4-carbamoylbutanoic acid
(s)-2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoate
(s)-2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoic acid
2-aminoglutaramic acid
Cebrogen
Glavamin
Glumin
Glutamic acid 5-amide
Glutamic acid amide
Glutamine
L-(+)-glutamine
L-2-aminoglutaramic acid
L-2-aminoglutaramidic acid
L-glutamic acid 5-amide
L-glutamic acid gamma-amide
L-glutamid
L-glutamide
L-glutamin
L-glutamine
L-glutaminsaeure-5-amid
Levoglutamid
Levoglutamida
Levoglutamide
Levoglutamidum
Levoglutamina
Polyglutamine
Stimulina
Gamma-glutamine
Q
Glutamate 5-amide
Glutamate amide


Phylloquinone

Vitamin K is a family of fat-soluble compounds with a common chemical structure based on 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone.Phylloquinone is often called vitamin K1, phytomenadione or phytonadione. Sometimes a distinction is made with phylloquinone considered natural and phytonadione considered synthetic. A stereoisomer of phylloquinone is called vitamin k1 (note the difference in capitalization). (Wikipedia). Phylloquinone is present in food of plant origin, such as green, leafy vegetables and certain plant oils, and is the predominant form in the diet. Bacterial and other forms of vitamin K, referred to as the menaquinones, differ in structure from phylloquinone in their 3-substituted lipophilic side chain. Menaquinone-4 (MK-4), which is alkylated from menadione, is present in animal feeds or is the product of tissue-specific conversion directly from dietary phylloquinone. Vitamin K is a cofactor specific to the formation of gamma-carboxyglutamyl (Gla) residues in certain proteins, including prothrombin necessary for normal hemostatic function. The naturally occurring forms of vitamin K are quinones (i.e. phylloquinone and menaquinones) so vitamin K is reduced to the vitamin K hydroquinone prior to catalyzing the gamma-carboxylation reaction. The active site for the carboxylation reaction is on the napthoquinone ring, which is identical for all forms of vitamin K, including phylloquinone and MK-4. (PMID 16857056).


dTDP

dTDP, also known as deoxy-tdp, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine 2'-deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates. These are pyrimidine nucleotides with a diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety lacking a hydroxyl group at position 2. dTDP is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, dTDP is primarily located in the mitochondria, nucleus and cytoplasm. dTDP exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. dTDP participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, dTDP can be converted into thymidine 5'-triphosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme nucleoside diphosphate kinase. Furthermore, dTDP and undecaprenyl N-acetyl-glucosaminyl-N-acetyl-mannosaminuronate-4-acetamido-4,6-dideoxy-D-galactose pyrophosphate can be biosynthesized from undecaprenyl N-acetyl-glucosaminyl-N-acetyl-mannosaminuronate pyrophosphate and TDP-fuc4nac; which is mediated by the enzyme 4-acetamido-4,6-dideoxy-D-galactose transferase. Finally, dTDP and undecaprenyl N-acetyl-glucosaminyl-N-acetyl-mannosaminuronate-4-acetamido-4,6-dideoxy-D-galactose pyrophosphate can be biosynthesized from undecaprenyl N-acetyl-glucosaminyl-N-acetyl-mannosaminuronate pyrophosphate and TDP-fuc4nac through its interaction with the enzyme 4-acetamido-4,6-dideoxy-D-galactose transferase. In humans, dTDP is involved in the pyrimidine metabolism pathway. dTDP is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include Beta ureidopropionase deficiency, UMP synthase deficiency (orotic aciduria), dihydropyrimidinase deficiency, and the mngie (mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy) pathway. Is an intermediate in the Thymidylate kinase (EC 2.7.4.9; ATP:dTMP phosphotransferase) catalyzes the phosphorylation of dTMP (to form dTDP) in the dTTP synthesis pathway for DNA synthesis. (OMIM 188345 )

2'-deoxyribosylthymine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphoric acid)


dTTP

"Thymidine 5-triphosphate, also known as TTP or DTHD5'ppp, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine 2'-deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. These are pyrimidine nucleotides with a triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety lacking a hydroxyl group at position 2. Thymidine 5-triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, thymidine 5-triphosphate is primarily located in the mitochondria, nucleus and cytoplasm. Thymidine 5-triphosphate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, thymidine 5-triphosphate is involved in the pyrimidine metabolism pathway. Thymidine 5-triphosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include Beta ureidopropionase deficiency, the mngie (mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy) pathway, UMP synthase deficiency (orotic aciduria), and dihydropyrimidinase deficiency. Outside of the human body, thymidine 5-triphosphate can be found in a number of food items such as nopal, saskatoon berry, grass pea, and sourdock. This makes thymidine 5-triphosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Thymidine 5-triphosphate or TTP is one of the four nucleoside triphosphates that make up DNA. It can be used by DNA ligase to create overlapping ""sticky ends"" so that protruding ends of opened microbial plasmids maybe closed up."


3-hexaprenyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid

3-Hexaprenyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, also known as 3,4-dihydroxy-5-hexaprenylbenzoic acid or dhhpba, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as polyprenylbenzene-1,2-diols. Polyprenylbenzene-1,2-diols are compounds containing a polyisoprene chain attached to a catechol group. 3-Hexaprenyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Within the cell, 3-hexaprenyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP) and cytoplasm. In humans, 3-hexaprenyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid is involved in ubiquinone biosynthesis pathway. 3-Hexaprenyl-4,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of Ubiquinone. It is a substrate for Hexaprenyldihydroxybenzoate methyltransferase (mitochondrial).


Indoleacetaldehyde is a substrate for Retina-specific copper amine oxidase, Aldehyde dehydrogenase X (mitochondrial), Amine oxidase B, Amiloride-sensitive amine oxidase, Aldehyde dehydrogenase (mitochondrial), Fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, 4-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase, Aldehyde dehydrogenase (dimeric NADP-preferring), Aldehyde dehydrogenase family 7 member A1, Amine oxidase A, Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A3 and Membrane copper amine oxidase.


3-Aminopropanal is a reactive aldehyde that mediates progressive neuronal necrosis and glial apoptosis. (PMID 11943872). Increased activity of polyamine oxidase catabolizes polyamines (such as spermine, spermidine and putrescine) to produce 3-aminopropanal. (PMID 15246852).


17alpha,21-Dihydroxy-5beta-pregnane-3,11,20-trione is an intermediate in C21-Steroid hormone metabolism. 17alpha,21-Dihydroxy-5beta-pregnane-3,11,20-trione is the second to last step in the synthesis of Cortolone and is converted. from Cortisone via the enzyme Delta4-3-oxosteroid 5beta-reductase (EC 1.3.1.3). It is then converted to Urocortisone via the enzyme 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.50).


Hydroxyproline

4-Hydroxyproline (hydroxyproline or Hyp) is a major component of the protein collagen. Hydroxyproline is produced by hydroxylation of the amino acid proline and is, therefore, a post-translationally modified amino acid. Hydroxyproline and proline play key roles for collagen stability. In particular, they permit the sharp twisting of the collagen helix. Hydroxyproline is found in few proteins other than collagen. The only other mammalian protein which includes hydroxyproline is elastin. For this reason, hydroxyproline content has been used as an indicator to determine collagen and/or gelatin amount in tissue or biological samples. Increased serum and urine levels of hydroxyproline have been found in Paget's disease (PMID: 436278). Hydroxyproline (Hyp) content in biological fluids is used as a parameter of collagen catabolism, especially bone resorption or tissue degradation. Bedridden and elderly individuals show significantly elevated serum levels of hydroxyproline in comparison to normal, active individuals (PMID: 10706420). Elevated levels of urinary hydroxyproline are also indicative of muscle damage (PMID: 21988268). Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also known to accelerate collagen degradation. Hydroxyproline levels increase in cases of depression and stress (PMID: 21483218). 4-Hydroxyproline is found to be associated with Alzheimer's disease, and also hydroxyprolinemia and iminoglycinuria which are both inborn errors of metabolism. 4-Hydroxyproline is also involved in metabolic disorders such as hyperprolinemia type I, hyperornithinemia with gyrate atrophy (HOGA), L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase deficiency, creatine deficiency, and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency. A deficiency in ascorbic acid can result in impaired hydroxyproline formation (PubChem). trans-4-Hydroxy-L-proline is a biomarker for the consumption of processed meat.


Plasma 21-deoxycortisol (21DF) is an excellent marker of 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Currently, it is the only marker able to detect heterozygous carriers with 21-hydroxylase deficiency after Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) stimulation. The syndrome of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) comprises the spectrum of autosomal recessive enzymatic disorders that impair cortisol biosynthesis. The hormonal pattern and clinical manifestations result from hyperstimulation of the adrenal cortex by excessive production of ACTH, untied from the negative feedback exerted by reduced cortisol levels, and the ultimate accumulation of F precursors and androgens. These abnormalities predispose the female newborn to ambiguous genitalia (female pseudohermaphroditism) and precocious puberty that may occur in both sexes. CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) comprises nearly 90% of all cases, with an estimated worldwide incidence of 1 in 14,000 live births. Because 21-deoxycortisol (21DF) is an 11b-hydroxylase (11bOH) derivative of 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP), its serum levels are parallel and proportionally elevated in patients with 21OHD but decreased or undetectable in those with 11b-hydroxylase deficiency (11bOHD). Due to the marked buildup of 17OHP in 21OHD, this precursor steroid can proceed directly to 11-hydroxylation, producing distinct elevations of 21DF. (PMID: 16551734, 10731638).


4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid

p-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is an oxidative deaminated metabolite of p-tyramine. Also a metabolite of tyrosine via enteric bacteria. The bacterial origin of this compound was confirmed by the finding that this compound in urine decreased significantly after the use of the antibiotic neomycin.

(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-essigsaeure
(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-acetate
(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-acetic acid
(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetate
(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid
(p-hydroxyphenyl)acetate
(p-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid
(p-hydroxyphenyl)-acetate
(p-hydroxyphenyl)-acetic acid
4-hydroxy-benzeneacetate
4-hydroxy-benzeneacetic acid
4-hydroxybenzeneacetate
4-hydroxybenzeneacetic acid
4-hydroxyphenylacetate
4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid
4-hydroxyphenyl-acetic acid
Parahydroxy phenylacetate
Parahydroxy phenylacetic acid
Parahydroxyphenylacetate
P-hydroxyphenylacetate
P-hydroxyphenylacetic acid
4-carboxymethylphenol


xanthosine

Biological Source: Xanthosine is produced by guanine-free mutants of bacteria e.g. Bacillus subtilis, Aerobacter aerogenes. Also reported from seeds of Trifolium alexandrinum Physical Description: Prismatic cryst. (H2O) (Chemnetbase) The deamination product of guanosine. Xanthosine monophosphate is an intermediate in purine metabolism, formed from IMP, and forming GMP.(Wikipedia). Xanthylic acid can be used in quantitative measurements of the Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase enzyme activities in purine metabolism, as recommended to ensure optimal thiopurine therapy for children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). (PMID: 16725387).


phosphocholine

Phosphorylcholine is a small haptenic molecule, is found in a wide variety of organisms. Human hepatic tumors undergo an elevation in the concentration of phosphorylcholine as the principal metabolic change is observed (PMID: 11076016). Phosphorylcholine is the precursor metabolite of choline in the glycine, serine and threonine metabolism pathways (KEGG, map00260) and in intermediate between choline and cytidine-diphosphate choline in the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway (KEGG, map00564).


catechol

Pyrocatechol, often known as catechol or benzene-1,2-diol, is a benzenediol, with formula C6H4(OH)2. It was first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch by distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu). This colourless compound occurs naturally, but about 20000 tons are manufactured each year, mainly as precursors to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. Its sulfonic acid is often present in the urine of many mammals. Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown benzoquinone derivatives. The enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice, or by refrigeration. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction. Catechol melts at 28 oC and boils at 250 oC. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application.

1,2-dihydroxybenzene
2-hydroxyphenol
Catechol
Durafur developer c
Fouramine pch
Fourrine 68
O-benzenediol
O-dihydroxybenzene
O-dioxybenzene
O-hydroquinone
O-hydroxyphenol
O-phenylenediol
Oxyphenate
Oxyphenic acid
Pelagol grey c
Phthalhydroquinone
Phthalic alcohol
Pyrocatechin
Pyrocatechine
Pyrocatechol


Alpha-D-Glucose 1,6-Bisphosphate

Glucose 1,6-diphosphate (G-1,6-P2) is considered to be a major regulator of carbohydrate metabolism. It has been demonstrated that G-1,6-P2 is a potent activator (deinhibitor) of skeletal muscle phosphofructokinase (PFK) and phosphoglucomutase, while being an inhibitor of hexokinase (see Ref. 2). In addition, G-1,6-P2 has been shown to inhibit 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in various rat tissues and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase in bovine liver. Various factors and conditions affect the tissue content of G-1,6-P2. Specifically, anoxia induce a rapid fall in the content of G-l,6-P2 in brain. Glucose 1,6-diphosphate have been recognized as a regulatory signal implicated in the control of metabolism, oxygen affinity of red cells and other cellular functions. The levels of G 1,6-P2 are reduced in the liver and in the muscle of rats with experimentally induced diabetes. In muscle of genetically dystrophic mice a decrease in the levels of G 1,6-P2 has been found, probably resulting from enhancement of glucose 1,6-P2 phosphatase activity. G 1,6-P2 is an inhibitor of hexokinase and its level is increased significantly after 5 min of exercise (~ 25%) and then decreased continuously. G 1,6-P2 is a potent allosteric activator of phosphofructokinase, and is markedly decreased in muscles of patients with glycogenosis type VII (muscle phosphofructokinase deficiency) and type V (muscle phosphorylase deficiency). Chronic alcohol intake produces an increase in the concentration of G 1,6-P2 in human muscle before the first sign of myopathy appears. When myopathy is present the level decreases to be similar of healthy humans. These changes could contribute to the decline in skeletal muscle performance. (PMID: 1449560, 2018547, 2003594, 3407759).


1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate

1D-myo-Inositol 3-phosphate is involved in the inositol phosphate metabolism and the phosphatidylinositol signaling systems. With regards to the inositol phosphate metabolism system, 1D-myo-Inositol 3-phosphate is created from D-myo-Inositol 3,4-bisphosphate by inositol polyphosphate-4-phosphatase (EC:3.1.3.66) and is converted to myo-Inositol by myo-inositol-1(or 4)-monophosphatase (EC:3.1.3.25). Within the phosphatidylinositol signaling system, 1D-myo-Inositol 3-phosphate is created from D-myo-Inositol 3,4-bisphosphate by inositol polyphosphate-4-phosphatase (EC:3.1.3.66) and is converted to myo-Inositol by myo-inositol-1(or 4)-monophosphatase (EC:3.1.3.25).

1d-myo-inositol 3-monophosphate
1l-myo-inositol 1-phosphate
D-myo-inositol 3-monophosphate
D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate
Inositol 3-monophosphate
Inositol 3-phosphate
L-myo-inositol 1-phosphate
Myo-inositol 3-monophosphate
Myo-inositol 3-phosphate


Selenic acid

Selenate, also known as sodium selenate or [seo2(OH)2], belongs to the class of inorganic compounds known as non-metal selenates. These are inorganic non-metallic compounds containing a selenate as its largest oxoanion. Selenate has been primarily detected in urine. Selenate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, selenate can be found in a number of food items such as turmeric, roman camomile, savoy cabbage, and other soy product. This makes selenate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Selenate is a potentially toxic compound.


The selenite anion is a selenium oxoanion with the chemical formula SeO32&#8722. A selenite (compound) is a compound that contains this ion. In slightly acid conditions, the hydrogenselenite ion, HSeO3−, is formed; in more acidic conditions selenous acid, H2SeO3, exists. Most selenite salts can be formed by heating the relevant metal oxide with selenium dioxide, e.g.:Na2O + SeO2 → Na2SeO3. Selenite is an inorganic form of selenium which may also be useful in cancer chemotherapy.(Wikipedia).

Selenite (seo32-)
Selenite ion (seo32-)
Selenite ion(2-)
Selenite(2-)
[seo3](2-)
Selenit


Inositol 1,3-Bisphosphate

1D-Myo-inositol 1,3-bisphosphate, also known as inositol 1,3-bisphosphoric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety. 1D-Myo-inositol 1,3-bisphosphate is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, 1D-myo-inositol 1,3-bisphosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, 1D-myo-inositol 1,3-bisphosphate is involved in the inositol phosphate metabolism pathway. 1D-Myo-inositol 1,3-bisphosphate is an intermediate in inositol phosphate metabolism. The enzyme phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase [EC:2.7.1.137] catalyzes the production of this metabolite from 1-Phosphatidyl-D-myo-inositol.

Phosphoric acid mono-(2,3,4,6-tetrahydroxy-5-phosphonooxy-cyclohexyl) ester


1D-myo-inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate

Inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate, also known as 1,3,4-itp or I3S, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety. Inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate is involved in the inositol metabolism pathway and the inositol phosphate metabolism pathway. Inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate is a specific regulator of cellular signaling.


arsenic acid

The arsenate ion is AsO43&#8722. An arsenate (compound) is any compound that contains this ion.The arsenic atom in arsenate has a valency of 5 and is also known as pentavalent arsenic or As[V].Arsenate resembles phosphate in many respects, since arsenic and phosphorus occur in the same group (column) of the periodic table. In acidic conditions arsenate exists as arsenic acid, H3AsO4;in weakly acid conditions it exists as dihydrogen arsenate ion, H2AsO4−; in weakly basic conditions it exists as hydrogen arsenate ion HAsO42−; and finally, in basic conditions, it exists as the arsenate ion AsO43&#8722. Arsenate can replace inorganic phosphate in the step of glycolysis that produces 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, yielding 1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate instead. This molecule is unstable and quickly hydrolyzes, forming the next intermediate in the pathway, 3-phosphoglycerate. Therefore glycolysis proceeds, but the ATP molecule that would be generated from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is lost - arsenate is an uncoupler of glycolysis, explaining its toxicity.[1]. Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenates to form arsenites. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases. In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just like ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). The researchers conjectured that historically these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. (Wikipedia).

Art
Arsenate ion
Arsenate ions
Arsenate(3-)
Arsorate
Tetraoxidoarsenate(3-)
Tetraoxoarsenate(3-)
Tetraoxoarsenate(v)
[aso(oh)3]
Arsoric acid
H3aso4
Orthoarsenic acid
Arsenic acid
Arsate
Arsic acid
Orthoarsenate