Nicotinamide

Niacinamide or vitamin B3 is an important compound functioning as a component of the coenzyme NAD. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake. Niacinamide is used to increase the effect of radiation therapy on tumor cells. Niacin (nicotinic acid) and niacinamide, while both labeled as vitamin B3 also have different applications. Niacinamide is useful in arthritis and early-onset type I diabetes while niacin is an effective reducer of high cholesterol levels.

3-carbamoylpyridine
3-pyridinecarboxamide
3-pyridinecarboxylic acid amide
Acid amide
Amid kyseliny nikotinove
Amide pp
Aminicotin
Amixicotyn
Amnicotin
Austrovit pp
Benicot
Delonin amide
Dipegyl
Dipigyl
Endobion
Factor pp
Hansamid
Inovitan pp
Mediatric
Nam
Nandervit-n
Niacevit
Niacinamide
Niamide
Niavit pp
Nicamide
Nicamina
Nicamindon
Nicasir
Nicobion
Nicofort
Nicogen
Nicomidol
Nicosan 2
Nicosylamide
Nicota
Nicotamide
Nicotilamide
Nicotililamido
Nicotinamida
Nicotinamide
Nicotinamidum
Nicotine acid amide
Nicotine amide
Nicotinic acid amide
Nicotinic amide
Nicotinsaureamid
Nicotol
Nicotylamide
Nicotylamidum
Nicovel
Nicovit
Nicovitina
Nicovitol
Nicozymin
Nictoamide
Niko-tamin
Nikotinamid
Nikotinsaeureamid
Niocinamide
Niozymin
Pp-faktor
Papulex
Pelmin
Pelmine
Pelonin amide
Propamine a
Pyridine-3-carboxylic acid amide
Savacotyl
Vi-nicotyl
Vi-noctyl
Vitamin b3
Vitamin pp
Witamina pp
B-pyridinecarboxamide
Beta-pyridinecarboxamide
M-(aminocarbonyl)pyridine
Nicotinate amide


Pyruvaldehyde

Pyruvaldehyde is an organic compound used often as a reagent in organic synthesis, as a flavoring agent, and in tanning. It has been demonstrated as an intermediate in the metabolism of acetone and its derivatives in isolated cell preparations, in various culture media, and in vivo in certain animals.


Stachyose

Stachyose is a tetrasaccharide consisting of two D-galactose units, one D-glucose unit, and one D-fructose unit sequentially linked. Stachyose is a normal human metabolite present in human milk and is naturally found in many vegetables (e.g. green beans, soybeans and other beans) and plants. The glycosylation of serum transferrin from galactosemic patients with a deficiency of galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (EC 2. 7.7 12) is abnormal but becomes normal after treatment with a galactose-free diet. Adhering to a galactose-free diet by strictly avoiding dairy products and known hidden sources of galactose does not completely normalize galactose-1-phosphate (gal-1-P) in erythrocytes from patients with galactosemia, since galactose released from stachyose may be absorbed and contribute to elevated gal-1-P values in erythrocytes of galactosemic patients. (PMID: 7671975, 9499382).


D-Lactaldehyde

D- and L-lactaldehyde are also good substrates for aldose reductase. The aldose reductase-catalyzed reduction of methylglyoxal produces 95% acetol, 5% D-lactaldehyde. (PMID: 1537826). D-lactaldehyde is an intermediate in the pyruvate metabolic pathway. Pyruvaldehyde is irreversibly produced from D-lactaldehyde via the enzyme glyoxylate reductase (NADP+, Swiss-Prot: Q5T945).


lathosterol

Lathosterol is a a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol) and a lipid found in the cell membranes of all body tissues, and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. It is used as an indicator of whole-body cholesterol synthesis (PMID 14511438). Plasma lathosterol levels are significantly elevated in patients with bile acid malabsorption (PMID: 8777839). Lathosterol oxidase (EC 1.14.21.6) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction 5alpha-cholest-7-en-3beta-ol + NAD(P)H + H+ + O2 cholesta-5,7-dien-3beta-ol + NAD(P)+ + 2 H2O.


dimethylamine

Dimethylamine (DMA) is an organic secondary amine. It is a colorless, liquefied and flammable gas with an ammonia and fish-like odor. Dimethylamine is abundantly present in human urine. Main sources of urinary DMA have been reported to include trimethylamine N-oxide, a common food component, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. ADMA is excreted in the urine in part unmetabolized and in part after hydrolysis to DMA by dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH). Statistically significant increases in urinary DMA have been found in individuals after the consumption of fish and seafoods. The highest values were obtained for individuals that consumed coley, squid and whiting with cod, haddock, sardine, skate and swordfish (PMID: 18282650). As a pure chemical substance Dimethylamine is used as dehairing agent in tanning, in dyes, in rubber accelerators, in soaps and cleaning compounds and as an agricultural fungicide. In the body, DMA also undergoes nitrosation under weak acid conditions to give dimethlynitrosamine.

Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine anhydrous
Dimethylamine anhydrous (dot)
Dimethylamine aqueous solution
Dimethylamine hydrobromide
Dimethylamine solution
N,n-dimethylamine
N-methyl-methanamine
N-methylmethanamine
N-methylmethanamine (acd/name 4.0)
Dma
Hnme2
Me2nh


Deoxyguanosine

Deoxyguanosine is a nucleoside consisting of the base guanine and the sugar deoxyribose. It is like guanosine, but with one oxygen atom removed. It is a nucleoside component of DNA. Deoxyguanosine can be converted to 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) due to hydroxyl radical attack at the C8 of guanine. 8-OHdG is a sensitive marker of the DNA damage This damage, if left unrepaired, has been proposed to contribute to mutagenicity and cancer promotion.


Isoleucine

Branched chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. "BCAA" denotes valine, isoleucine and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease, such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia or portacaval shunt; aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine, as well as methionine-are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. A dose of 3 g of isoleucine added to the niacin regime has cleared leucine-aggravated psychosis in schizophrenic patients. Isoleucine may have potential as an antipsychotic treatment. Leucine is more highly concentrated in foods than other amino acids. A cup of milk contains 800 mg of leucine and only 500 mg of isoleucine and valine. A cup of wheat germ has about 1.6 g of leucine and 1 g of isoleucine and valine. The ratio evens out in eggs and cheese. One egg and an ounce of most cheeses each contain about 400 mg of leucine and 400 mg of valine and isoleucine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g. (http://www.dcnutrition.com).


11beta,17alpha,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone is an intermediate in C21-Steroid hormone metabolism. 11beta,17alpha,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone is the 4th to last step in the synthesis of Cortol and is converted from 17alpha,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone via the enzyme cytochrome P450 (EC:1.14.15.4). It is then converted to Cortisol via the enzyme 3beta-hydroxy-delta5-steroid dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.145) and the enzyme steroid delta-isomerase (EC 5.3.3.1).


Asparagine

Asparagine (Asn) is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids on Earth. It has carboxamide as the side chain's functional group. Asparagine is not an essential amino acid, which means that it can be synthesized from central metabolic pathway intermediates in humans and is not required in the diet. The precursor to asparagine is oxaloacetate. Oxaloacetate is converted to aspartate using a transaminase enzyme. The enzyme transfers the amino group from glutamate to oxaloacetate producing alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. The enzyme asparagine synthetase produces asparagine, AMP, glutamate, and pyrophosphate from aspartate, glutamine, and ATP. In the asparagine synthetase reaction, ATP is used to activate aspartate, forming beta-aspartyl-AMP. Glutamine donates an ammonium group which reacts with beta-aspartyl-AMP to form asparagine and free AMP. Since the asparagine side chain can make efficient hydrogen bond interactions with the peptide backbone, asparagines are often found near the beginning and end of alpha-helices, and in turn motifs in beta sheets. Its role can be thought as "capping" the hydrogen bond interactions which would otherwise need to be satisfied by the polypeptide backbone. Glutamines have an extra methylene group and have more conformational entropy, and thus are less useful in this regard. Asparagine also provides key sites for N-linked glycosylation, modification of the protein chain with the addition of carbohydrate chains. A reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars or reactive carbonyls produces acrylamide (acrylic amide) in food when heated to sufficient temperature (i.e. baking). These occur primarily in baked goods such as french fries, potato chips, and roasted coffee. Asparagine was first isolated in 1806 from asparagus juice, in which it is abundant--hence its name--becoming the first amino acid to be isolated. The smell observed in the urine of some individuals after their consumption of asparagus is attributed to a byproduct of the metabolic breakdown of asparagine, asparagine-amino-succinic-acid monoamide. However, some scientists disagree and implicate other substances in the smell, especially methanethiol (Wikipedia).

(-)-asparagine
(s)-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoate
(s)-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoic acid
(s)-asparagine
2-aminosuccinamate
2-aminosuccinamic acid
Agedoite
Altheine
Asn
Asparagine
Asparagine acid
Asparamide
Aspartamate
Aspartamic acid
Aspartic acid amide
Aspartic acid b-amide
Aspartic acid beta amide
B2,4-(s)-diamino-4-oxo-utanoate
B2,4-(s)-diamino-4-oxo-utanoic acid
Crystal vi
L-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoate
L-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoic acid
L-asparagine
L-aspartamine
L-b-asparagine
L-beta-asparagine
A-aminosuccinamate
A-aminosuccinamic acid
Alpha amminosuccinamate
Alpha amminosuccinamic acid
Alpha-aminosuccinamate
Alpha-aminosuccinamic acid
(2s)-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoic acid
(2s)-2-amino-3-carbamoylpropanoic acid
(s)-2-amino-3-carbamoylpropanoic acid
L-2-aminosuccinamic acid
L-asparagin
L-aspartic acid beta-amide
N
(2s)-2,4-diamino-4-oxobutanoate
(2s)-2-amino-3-carbamoylpropanoate
(s)-2-amino-3-carbamoylpropanoate
α-aminosuccinamate
α-aminosuccinamic acid
L-2-aminosuccinamate
L-aspartate b-amide
L-aspartate beta-amide
L-aspartate β-amide
L-aspartic acid b-amide
L-aspartic acid β-amide


UDP-glucuronate

Uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid is a nucleoside diphosphate sugar which serves as a source of glucuronic acid for polysaccharide biosynthesis. It may also be epimerized to UDP Iduronic acid, which donates Iduronic acid to polysaccharides. In animals, UDP glucuronic acid is used for formation of many glucosiduronides with various aglycones. The transfer of glucuronic acid from UDP-alpha-D-glucuronic acid onto a terminal galactose residue is done by beta1,3-glucuronosyltransferases, responsible for the completion of the protein-glycosaminoglycan linkage region of proteoglycans and of the HNK1 epitope of glycoproteins and glycolipids. In humans the enzyme galactose-beta-1,3-glucuronosyltransferase I completes the synthesis of the common linker region of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) by transferring glucuronic acid (GlcA) onto the terminal galactose of the glycopeptide primer of proteoglycans. The GAG chains of proteoglycans regulate major biological processes such as cell proliferation and recognition, extracellular matrix deposition, and morphogenesis. (PMID: 16815917).

Glucopyranuronic acid 1-ester with uridine 5'-pyrophosphate

Uridine 5'-[3-(d-glucopyranosyloxyuronic acid) dihydrogen diphosphate]

A-d-glucopyranuronic acid 1->5'-ester with uridine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate)

A-d-glucopyranuronic acid ester with uridine 5'-pyrophosphate

Alpha-d-glucopyranuronic acid 1-p'-ester with uridine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate)

Alpha-delta-glucopyranuronic acid 1->5'-ester with uridine 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphate)

Alpha-delta-glucopyranuronic acid 1-p'-ester with uridine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate)

Alpha-delta-glucopyranuronic acid ester with uridine 5'-pyrophosphate

Uridine diphosphoric acid glucuronic acid


Inosinic Acid

Inosinic acid is a purine nucleotide which has hypoxanthine as the base and one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety. Inosinic acid is a nucleotide present in muscle and other tissues. It is formed by the deamination of AMP and when hydrolysed produces inosine. Inosinic acid is the ribonucleotide of hypoxanthine and is the first compound formed during the synthesis of purine. (Wikipedia).

5'-imp
5'-inosinate
5'-inosine monophosphate
5'-inosinic acid
Imp
Inosine 5'-monophosphate
Inosine 5'-phosphate
Inosine monophosphate
Inosine-5'-monophosphate
2'-inosine-5'-monophosphate
Hypoxanthosine 5'-monophosphate
Inosinic acid
Ribosylhypoxanthine monophosphate
2'-inosine-5'-monophosphoric acid
5'-inosine monophosphoric acid
Hypoxanthosine 5'-monophosphoric acid
Inosine 5'-monophosphoric acid
Inosine 5'-phosphoric acid
Inosine monophosphoric acid
Inosinate
Ribosylhypoxanthine monophosphoric acid


Proline

L-proline is one of the twenty amino acids used in living organisms as the building blocks of proteins. Proline is sometimes called an imino acid, although the IUPAC definition of an imine requires a carbon-nitrogen double bond. Proline is a non-essential amino acid that is synthesized from glutamic acid. It is an essential component of collagen and is important for proper functioning of joints and tendons. Proline is derived from the amino acid L-glutamate in which glutamate-5-semialdehyde is first formed by glutamate 5-kinase and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (which requires NADH or NADPH). This semialdehyde can then either spontaneously cyclize to form 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid, which is reduced to proline by pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase, or turned into ornithine by ornithine aminotransferase, followed by cyclization by ornithine cyclodeaminase to form proline. L-Proline has been found to act as a weak agonist of the glycine receptor and of both NMDA and non-NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors. It has been proposed to be a potential endogenous excitotoxin/neurotoxin. Studies in rats have shown that when injected into the brain, proline non-selectively destroys pyramidal and granule cells (PMID: 3409032). Therefore, under certain conditions proline can act as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of proline are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism, including hyperprolinemia type I, hyperprolinemia type II, iminoglycinuria, prolinemia type II, and pyruvate carboxylase deficiency. People with hyperprolinemia type I often do not show any symptoms even though they have proline levels in their blood between 3 and 10 times the normal level. Some individuals with hyperprolinemia type I exhibit seizures, intellectual disability, or other neurological or psychiatric problems. Hyperprolinemia type II results in proline levels in the blood between 10 and 15 times higher than normal, and high levels of a related compound called pyrroline-5-carboxylate. Hyperprolinemia type II has signs and symptoms that vary in severity, and is more likely than type I to involve seizures or intellectual disability.

(-)-(s)-proline
(-)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
(-)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
(-)-proline
(s)-(-)-proline
(s)-(-)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylate
(s)-(-)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid
(s)-2-carboxypyrrolidine
(s)-2-pyrralidinecarboxylate
(s)-2-pyrralidinecarboxylic acid
(s)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
(s)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
(s)-proline
2-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
2-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
Proline
(2s)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid
(s)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid
L-(-)-proline
L-alpha-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
L-prolin
L-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid
P
Prolina
Prolinum
(2s)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylate
(s)-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylate
L-a-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
L-a-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
L-alpha-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
L-α-pyrrolidinecarboxylate
L-α-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid
L-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylate


Geranyl-PP

Geranyl diphosphate is the precursor of monoterpenes, a large family of natural occurring C10 compounds predominately found in plants and animals. Geranyl diphosphate is regarded as a key intermediate in the steroid, isoprene and terpene biosynthesis pathways and is used by organisms in the biosynthesis of farnesyl pyrophosphate, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, cholesterol, terpenes and terpenoids. (wikipedia). In humans, geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS) catalyzes the condensation of dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) to form geranyl diphosphate. Animals produce IPP through the mevalonate (MVA) pathway. Isoprenoid compounds have been implicated in several human disease states including coronary heart disease, blindness, infectious hepatitis and cancer. Geranyl pyrophosphate is an intermediate in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway used by organisms in the biosynthesis of terpenes and terpenoids. -- Wikipedia.


homocysteine

Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid that arises during methionine metabolism. Although its concentration in plasma is only about 10 micromolar (uM), even moderate hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease. Elevations in plasma homocysteine are commonly found as a result of vitamin deficiencies, polymorphisms of enzymes of methionine metabolism, and renal disease. Pyridoxal, folic acid, riboflavin, and Vitamin B(12) are all required for methionine metabolism, and deficiency of each of these vitamins result in elevated plasma homocysteine. A polymorphism of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (C677T), which is quite common in most populations with a homozygosity rate of 10-15 %, is associated with moderate hyperhomocysteinemia, especially in the context of marginal folate intake. Plasma homocysteine is inversely related to plasma creatinine in patients with renal disease. This is due to an impairment in homocysteine removal in renal disease. The role of these factors, and of modifiable lifestyle factors, in affecting methionine metabolism and in determining plasma homocysteine levels is discussed. Homocysteine is an independent cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor modifiable by nutrition and possibly exercise. Homocysteine was first identified as an important biological compound in 1932 and linked with human disease in 1962 when elevated urinary homocysteine levels were found in children with mental retardation. This condition, called homocysteinuria, was later associated with premature occlusive CVD, even in children. These observations led to research investigating the relationship of elevated homocysteine levels and CVD in a wide variety of populations including middle age and elderly men and women with and without traditional risk factors for CVD. (PMID 17136938, 15630149).

(+-)-homocysteine
(s)-2-amino-4-mercapto-butanoate
(s)-2-amino-4-mercapto-butanoic acid
2-amino-4-mercapto-butanoate
2-amino-4-mercapto-butanoic acid
2-amino-4-mercapto-butyric acid
2-amino-4-mercapto-dl-butyrate
2-amino-4-mercapto-dl-butyric acid
2-amino-4-mercaptobutyric acid
2-amino-4-sulfanylbutanoate
2-amino-4-sulfanylbutanoic acid
D,l-homocysteine
Dl-2-amino-4-mercaptobutyric acid
Dl-2-amino-4-mercapto-butyric acid
Dl-homocysteine
Dl-homocysteine (free base)
Hcy
Homo-cys
Homocysteine
L-2-amino-4-mercapto-butyric acid
L-homocysteine
Usaf b-12
2-amino-4-mercaptobutyrate


Glutamic gamma-semialdehyde is the metabolic precursor for proline biosynthesis. The conversion from L-Glutamate, an ATP- and NADPH-dependent reaction, is catalyzed by the enzyme Delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) (OMIM 138250). L-Glutamic-gamma-semialdehyde can also be converted to or be formed from the amino acids L-ornithine (EC 2.6.1.13) and L-proline (EC 1.5.99.8 and EC 1.5.1.2). It is also one of the few metabolites that can be a precursor to other metabolites of both the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle (BioCyc).

Glutamate-semialdehyde
Glutamic gamma-semialdehyde
L-glutamate 5-semialdehyde
L-glutamate-gamma-semialdehyde
L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde
L-glutamic-gamma-semialdehyde
5-oxo-l-norvaline
L-glutamate gamma-semialdehyde
L-glutamic acid 5-semialdehyde
L-glutamate g-semialdehyde
L-glutamate γ-semialdehyde
L-glutamic acid g-semialdehyde
L-glutamic acid gamma-semialdehyde
L-glutamic acid γ-semialdehyde


D-glucose

Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiacetal. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium and at pH 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. Glucose is a primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. In animals glucose arises from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis.

Roferose st
(+)-glucose
Anhydrous dextrose
Cpc hydrate
Cerelose
Cerelose 2001
Clearsweet 95
Clintose l
Corn sugar
D(+)-glucose
Dextropur
Dextrose
Dextrosol
Glucodin
Glucolin
Glucose
Goldsugar
Grape sugar
Meritose
Staleydex 111
Staleydex 95m
Tabfine 097(hs)
Vadex
D-glc
D-glcp
D-glucose


CDP

CDP, also known as 5'-cdp, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine ribonucleoside diphosphates. These are pyrimidine ribonucleotides with diphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety. CDP is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). CDP has been primarily detected in blood. Within the cell, CDP is primarily located in the mitochondria, nucleus and cytoplasm. In humans, CDP is involved in the pyrimidine metabolism pathway. CDP is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include dihydropyrimidinase deficiency, UMP synthase deficiency (orotic aciduria), the mngie (mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy) pathway, and Beta ureidopropionase deficiency. Cytidine 5\'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). A cytosine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. Synonyms: CRPP; cytidine pyrophosphate.

Cytidine, 5'-(trihydrogen pyrophosphoric acid)


dehydroascorbic acid

Dehydroascorbic acid is the oxidized form of vitamin C. Reduced Vitamin C concentrations in the brain exceed those in blood by 10 fold. Dehydroascorbic acid readily enters the brain and is retained in the brain tissue in the form of ascorbic acid (ascorbic acid is not able to cross the blood-brain barrier). Therefore, transport of dehydroascorbic acid by the Glucose Transporter 1 (GLUT1, Glucose transporters are integral membrane glycoproteins involved in transporting glucose into most cells. GLUT1 is a major glucose transporter in the mammalian blood-brain barrier. It is present at high levels in primate erythrocytes and brain endothelial cells.) is a mechanism by which the brain acquires vitamin C. (OMIM 138140).


Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It is the product of the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing compounds, notably in internal-combustion engines. It consists of one carbon atom covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. It is a gas at room temperature. Carbon monoxide is a significantly toxic gas and is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries. Exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the central nervous system and heart. Carbon monoxide has a higher diffusion coefficient compared to oxygen and the only enzyme in the human body that produces carbon monoxide is heme oxygenase which is located in all cells and breaks down heme. Because it has a higher diffusion coefficient than oxygen the body easily gets rid of any CO made. When CO is not ventilated it binds to hemoglobin, which is the principal oxygen-carrying compound in blood; this produces a compound known as carboxyhemoglobin. The traditional belief is that carbon monoxide toxicity arises from the formation of carboxyhemoglobin, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and inhibits the transport, delivery, and utilization of oxygen by the body. The affinity between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is approximately 230 times stronger than the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen so hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen. Following poisoning, long-term sequelae often occur. Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the fetus of a pregnant woman. Despite its serious toxicity, CO is extremely useful and underpins much modern technology, being a precursor to a myriad of useful - even life-saving - products. Carbon monoxide, though thought of as a pollutant today, has always been present in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of volcanic activity. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the earth's mantle. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01% to as much as 2% depending on the volcano. It also occurs naturally in bushfires. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas. (wikipedia).


6-Lactoyltetrahydropterin is a putative intermediate in the de novo synthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) pathway, in a reaction involving the enzyme sepiapterin reductase (E.C. 1.1.1.153) in human liver. In brain, an enzyme distinct from sepiapterin reductase catalyzes the TPNH-dependent reduction of 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin to 6-lactoyl-tetrahydropterin. (PMID: 4004850). In brain, the expression of other enzymes involved in BH4 biosynthesis includes aldose reductase, carbonyl reductase, GTP-cyclohydrolase I, and 6-pyruvoyltetrahydrobiopterin. Sepiapterin reductase expression is increased in Parkinson's disease brain tissue. (PMID: 17270157).


Hydroxyprogesterone

It serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of hydrocortisone and gonadal steroid hormones. It is derived from progesterone via 17-hydroxylase, a P450c17 enzyme, or from 17-hydroxypregnenolone via 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Δ5-4 isomerase. 17-Hydroxyprogesterone is a natural progestin and in pregnancy increases in the third trimester primarily due to fetal adrenal production. This hormone is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and to some degree in the gonads, specifically the corpus luteum of the ovary. Normal levels are 3-90 ng/dl in children, and in women, 15-70 ng/dl prior to ovulation, and 35-290 ng/dl during the luteal phase. Measurements of levels of 17-hydroxyprogesterone are useful in the evaluation of patients with suspected congenital adrenal hyperplasia as the typical enzymes that are defective, namely 21-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxylase, lead to a build-up of 17OHP. In contrast, the rare patient with 17α-hydroxylase deficiency will have very low or undetectable levels of 17OHP. 17OHP levels can also be used to measure contribution of progestational activity of the corpus luteum during pregnancy as progesterone but not 17OHP is also contributed by the placenta.


DEOXYADENOSINE

Deoxyadenosine is a derivative of the nucleoside adenosine. It is composed of adenine attached to a deoxyribose moiety via a N9-glycosidic bond. Deoxyribose differs from ribose by the absence of oxygen in the 3' position of its ribose ring. Deoxyadenosine is a critical component of DNA. When present in sufficiently high levels, deoxyadensoine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of deoxyadenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, an inborn error of metabolism. ADA deficiency damages the immune system and causes severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). People with SCID lack virtually all immune protection from bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They are prone to repeated and persistent infections that can be very serious or life-threatening. These infections are often caused by "opportunistic" organisms that ordinarily do not cause illness in people with a normal immune system. The main symptoms of ADA deficiency are pneumonia, chronic diarrhea, and widespread skin rashes. The mechanism by which dATP functions as an immunotoxin is as follows: because deoxyadenosine is a precursor to dATP, a buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.


Estrone

Estrone is a major mammalian estrogen. The conversion of the natural C19 steroids, testosterone and androstenedione into estrone is dependent on a complex key reaction catalyzed by the cytochrome P450 aromatase (EC 1.14.14.1, unspecific monooxygenase), which is expressed in many tissues of the adult human (e.g. ovary, fat tissue), but not in the liver. The ovaries after menopause continue to produce androstenedione and testosterone in significant amounts and these androgens are converted in fat, muscle, and skin into estrone. When women between the ages of 45 and 64 years have prophylactic oophorectomy (when hysterectomy is performed for benign disease to prevent the development of ovarian cancer), evidence suggests that oophorectomy increases the subsequent risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and osteoporosis. Whereas 14,000 women die of ovarian cancer every year nearly 490,000 women die of heart disease and 48,000 women die within 1 year after hip fracture. Therefore, the decision to perform prophylactic oophorectomy should be approached with great caution for the majority of women who are at low risk of developing ovarian cancer. Steroid sulfatase (EC 3.1.6.2, STS) hydrolyzes steroid sulfates, such as estrone sulfate to estrone which can be converted to steroids with potent estrogenic properties, that is, estradiol; STS activity is much higher in breast tumors and high levels of STS mRNA expression in tumors are associated with a poor prognosis. The biological roles of estrogens in tumorigenesis are certainly different between the endometrium and breast, although both are considered "estrogen-dependent tissues". 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (EC 1.1.1.62, 17-HSDs) are enzymes involved in the formation of active sex steroids. estrone is interconverted by two enzymes 17-HSD types. Type 1 converts estrone to estradiol and Type 2 catalyzes the reverse reaction. (PMID: 17653961, 17513923, 17470679, 17464097).


Inositol

myo-Inositol is an inositol isoform. Inositol is a derivative of cyclohexane with six hydroxyl groups, making it a polyol. It also is known as a sugar alcohol, having exactly the same molecular formula as glucose or other hexoses. Inositol exists in nine possible stereoisomers, of which cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol, or myo-inositol is the most widely occurring form in nature. The other known inositols include scyllo-inositol, muco-inositol, D-chiro-inositol, L-chiro-inositol, neo-inositol, allo-inositol, epi-inositol and cis-inositol. myo-Inositol is found naturally in many foods (particularly in cereals with high bran content) and can be used as a sweetner as it has half the sweetness of sucrose (table sugar). myo-Inositol was once considered a member of the vitamin B complex and given the name: vitamin B8. However, because it is produced by the human body from glucose, it is not an essential nutrient, and therefore cannot be called a vitamin. myo-Inositol is a precursor molecule for a number of secondary messengers including various inositol phosphates. In addition, inositol/myo-inositol is an important component of the lipids known as phosphatidylinositol (PI) phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP). myo-Inositol is synthesized from glucose, via glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) in two steps. First, G-6-P is isomerised by an inositol-3-phosphate synthase enzyme to myo-inositol 1-phosphate, which is then dephosphorylated by an inositol monophosphatase enzyme to give free myo-inositol. In humans, myo-inositol is primarily synthesized in the kidneys at a rate of a few grams per day. myo-Inositol can be used in the management of preterm babies who have or are at a risk of infant respiratory distress syndrome. It is also used as a treatment for polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). It works by increasing insulin sensitivity, which helps to improve ovarian function and reduce hyperandrogenism. Reduced levels of myo-inositol have been found in the spinal fluid of depressed patients and levels are significantly reduced in brain samples of suicide victims.


2',3'-Dideoxyadenosine-5-triphosphate, also known as 2',3'-dideoxy-ATP or ddatp, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine 2',3'-dideoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. These are purine nucleotides with triphosphate group linked to the ribose moiety lacking a hydroxyl group at positions 2 and 3. 2',3'-Dideoxyadenosine-5-triphosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 2',3'-Dideoxyadenosine-5-triphosphate has been found in human liver and kidney tissues, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as urine and blood. Within the cell, 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine-5-triphosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine-5-triphosphate is involved in the didanosine action pathway.


27-Deoxy-5b-cyprinol is an intermediate in Bile acid synthesis pathway, in a sequence of reactions catalyzed by sterol 27-hydroxylase (CYP27) in the oxidation of 5 beta-cholestane-3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha,27-tetrol into 3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha-trihydroxy-5 beta-cholestanoic acid (PMID: 8496170). 5 beta-cholestane-3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha,25-tetrol 3-glucuronide, a metabolite of 27-Deoxy-5b-cyprinol, is the major bile alcohol component in serum from cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis patients (PMID: 7920441).


1-Phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate, also known as PTDINS3P, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety. 1-Phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). 1-Phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate has been found in human skeletal muscle tissue. Within the cell, 1-phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate is primarily located in the cytoplasm. In humans, 1-phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate is involved in the inositol metabolism pathway. 1-Phosphatidyl-1D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate is a substrate for FYVE finger-containing phosphoinositide kinase and Neutrophil cytosol factor 4.


Phosphocreatine

Phosphocreatine undergoes irreversible cyclization and dehydration to form creatinine at a fractional rate of 0.026 per day, thus forming approximately 2 g creatinine/day in an adult male. This is the amount of creatine that must be provided either from dietary sources or by endogenous synthesis to maintain the body pool of (creatine and) phosphocreatine. Creatine is an amino acid that plays a vital role as phosphocreatine in regenerating adenosine triphosphate in skeletal muscle to energize muscle contraction. Creatine is phosphorylated to phosphocreatine in muscle in a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme creatine kinase. This enzyme is in highest concentration in muscle and nerve. Oral administration increases muscle stores. During the past decade, creatine has assumed prominence as an ergogenic (and legal) aid for professional and elite athletes. Most (~ 95%) of the total body creatine-phosphocreatine pool is in muscle (more in skeletal muscle than in smooth muscle) and amounts to 120 g (or 925 mmol) in a 70 kg adult male. Approximately 60-67% of the content in resting muscle is in the phosphorylated form. This generates enough ATP at the myofibrillar apparatus to power about 4 seconds of muscle contraction in exercise. Phosphocreatine reacts with ADP to yield ATP and creatine; the reversible reaction is catalyzed by creatine kinase. phosphocreatine is the chief store of high-energy phosphates in muscle. Thus, this reaction, which permits the rephosphorylation of ADP to ATP, is the immediate source of energy in muscle contraction. During rest, metabolic processes regenerate phosphocreatine stores. In normal muscle, ATP that is broken down to ADP is immediately rephosphorylated to ATP. Thus, phosphocreatine serves as a reservoir of ATP-synthesizing potential. phosphocreatine is the only fuel available to precipitously regenerate ATP during episodes of rapid fluctuations in demand. The availability of phosphocreatine likely limits muscle performance during brief, high-power exercise, i.e., maximal exercise of short duration. With near maximal isometric contraction, the rate of utilization of phosphocreatine declines after 1-2 seconds of contraction, prior to the glycolysis peak at approximately 3 seconds. (PMID: 10079702, Nutr Rev. 1999 Feb;57(2):45-50.).


Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid and the precursor of the amino acid tyrosine. Like tyrosine, phenylalanine is also a precursor for catecholamines including tyramine, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. Catecholamines are neurotransmitters that act as adrenalin-like substances. Interestingly, several psychotropic drugs (mescaline, morphine, codeine, and papaverine) also have phenylalanine as a constituent. Phenylalanine is highly concentrated in the human brain and plasma. Normal metabolism of phenylalanine requires biopterin, iron, niacin, vitamin B6, copper, and vitamin C. An average adult ingests 5 g of phenylalanine per day and may optimally need up to 8 g daily. Phenylalanine is highly concentrated in a number of high protein foods, such as meat, cottage cheese, and wheat germ. An additional dietary source of phenylalanine is artificial sweeteners containing aspartame. As a general rule, aspartame should be avoided by phenylketonurics and pregnant women. When present in sufficiently high levels, phenylalanine can act as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural cells and neural tissue. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of phenylalanine are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism, including Hartnup disorder, hyperphenylalaninemia due to guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase deficiency, phenylketonuria (PKU), tyrosinemia type 2 (or Richner-Hanhart syndrome), and tyrosinemia type III (TYRO3). Phenylketonurics have elevated serum plasma levels of phenylalanine up to 400 times normal. High plasma concentrations of phenylalanine influence the blood-brain barrier transport of large neutral amino acids. The high plasma phenylalanine concentrations increase phenylalanine entry into the brain and restrict the entry of other large neutral amino acids (PMID: 19191004). Phenylalanine has been found to interfere with different cerebral enzyme systems. Untreated phenylketonuria (PKU) can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioural problems, and mental disorders. It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin. Classic PKU dramatically affects myelination and white matter tracts in untreated infants; this may be one major cause of neurological disorders associated with phenylketonuria. Mild phenylketonuria can act as an unsuspected cause of hyperactivity, learning problems, and other developmental problems in children. It has been recently suggested that PKU may resemble amyloid diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, due to the formation of toxic amyloid-like assemblies of phenylalanine (PMID: 22706200). Phenylalanine also has some potential benefits. Phenylalanine can act as an effective pain reliever. Its use in premenstrual syndrome and Parkinson's may enhance the effects of acupuncture and electric transcutaneous nerve stimulation (TENS). Phenylalanine and tyrosine, like L-DOPA, produce a catecholamine-like effect. Phenylalanine is better absorbed than tyrosine and may cause fewer headaches. Low phenylalanine diets have been prescribed for certain cancers with mixed results. For instance, some tumours use more phenylalanine than others (particularly melatonin-producing tumours called melanomas).


Morphine

Morphine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle. [PubChem]The precise mechanism of the analgesic action of morphine is unknown. However, specific CNS opiate receptors have been identified and likely play a role in the expression of analgesic effects. Morphine first acts on the mu-opioid receptors. The mechanism of respiratory depression involves a reduction in the responsiveness of the brain stem respiratory centers to increases in carbon dioxide tension and to electrical stimulation.It has been shown that morphine binds to and inhibits GABA inhibitory interneurons. These interneurons normally inhibit the descending pain inhibition pathway. So, without the inhibitory signals, pain modulation can proceed downstream.


Pyridoxal

Pyridoxal, also known as pyridoxaldehyde, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyridoxals and derivatives. Pyridoxals and derivatives are compounds containing a pyridoxal moiety, which consists of a pyridine ring substituted at positions 2,3,4, and 5 by a methyl group, a hydroxyl group, a carbaldehyde group, and a hydroxymethyl group, respectively. Pyridoxal exists as a solid, soluble (in water), and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Pyridoxal has been found in human kidney and placenta tissues, and has also been primarily detected in blood. Within the cell, pyridoxal is primarily located in the cytoplasm. Pyridoxal exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Pyridoxal can be converted into pyridoxal 5'-phosphate; which is catalyzed by the enzyme pyridoxal kinase. In humans, pyridoxal is involved in the vitamin B6 metabolism pathway and the valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation pathway. Pyridoxal is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include Beta-ketothiolase deficiency, the 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type IV pathway, the methylmalonic aciduria pathway, and isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency. The 4-carboxyaldehyde form of vitamin B6 which is converted to pyridoxal phosphate which is a coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine), sphingolipids, aminolevulinic acid.


Trimethyllysine

N6,N6,N6-Trimethyl-L-lysine is a methylated derivative of the amino acid lysine. It is a component of histone proteins, a precursor of carnitine and a coenzyme of fatty acid oxidation. N6,N6,N6-Trimethyl-L-lysine residues are found in a number of proteins and are generated by the action of S-adenosyl-L-methionine on exposed lysine residues. When trimethyllysine is released from cognate proteins via proteolysis, it serves as a precursor for carnitine biosynthesis. Mitochondrial 6-N-trimethyllysine dioxygenase converts 6-N-trimethyllysine to 3-hydroxy-6-N-trimethyllysine as the first step for carnitine biosynthesis. Because the subsequent carnitine biosynthesis enzymes are cytosolic, 3-hydroxy-6-N-trimethyllysine must be transported out of the mitochondria by a putative mitochondrial 6-N-trimethyllysine/3-hydroxy-6-N-trimethyllysine transporter system. Plasma -N-trimethyllysine concentrations are significantly lower in systemic carnitine deficiency patients compared to normal individuals, but no significant difference in urinary -N-trimethyllysine excretion is seen between the two groups.


Guanosine monophosphate, also known as guanylic acid or 5'-GMP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine ribonucleoside monophosphates. These are nucleotides consisting of a purine base linked to a ribose to which one monophosphate group is attached. Guanosine monophosphate is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Guanosine monophosphate has been found throughout most human tissues, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as saliva and blood. Guanosine monophosphate can be found anywhere throughout the human cell, such as in mitochondria, golgi, lysosome, and nucleus. Guanosine monophosphate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, guanosine monophosphate is involved in the tigecycline action pathway, the homocarnosinosis pathway, the chloramphenicol action pathway, and the azithromycin action pathway. Guanosine monophosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency, xanthine dehydrogenase deficiency (xanthinuria), adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (aprt), and myoadenylate deaminase deficiency. Outside of the human body, guanosine monophosphate can be found in a number of food items such as black salsify, oyster mushroom, endive, and redcurrant. This makes guanosine monophosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Guanosine 5\'-monophosphate. A guanine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety and found widely in nature.

5'-gmp
E 626
Gmp
Guanidine monophosphate
Guanosine 5'-monophosphate
Guanosine 5'-phosphate
Guanosine 5'-phosphorate
Guanosine 5'-phosphoric acid
Guanosine monophosphate
Guanosine-5'-monophosphate
Guanosine-5'-phosphate
Guanosine-phosphate
Guanylate
Guanylic acid
Pg
Guanosine 5'-monophosphoric acid
Guanosine monophosphoric acid
Guanosine-5'-monophosphoric acid


Testosterone

19-Oxotestosterone is catalyzed by Aromatase (EC 1.14.14.1),also called estrogen synthetase (a cytochrome P450 enzyme which catalyzes the formation of aromatic C18 estrogens from C19 androgens; it is symbolized CYP19) into oestrogens via sequential oxidations at the 19-methyl group. Biosynthesis of estrogens from C19 steroids is catalyzed by aromatase and its tissue-specific expression is determined at least in part by alternative use of tissue-specific promoters, which give rise to transcripts with unique 5-prime noncoding termini.(OMIM 107910).


Linoleic acid

Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes. (From Stedman, 26th ed).

C18:2 9c, 12c omega6 todos cis-9,12-octadienoico


sulfite

Endogenous sulfite is generated as a consequence of the body's normal processing of sulfur-containing amino acids. Sulfites occur as a consequence of fermentation and also occur naturally in a number of foods and beverages. As food additives, sulfiting agents were first used in 1664 and have been approved in the United States since the 1800s. Sulfite is an allergen, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin.  An allergen is a compound that causes allergic reactions such as wheezing, rash, or rhinitis. A neurotoxin is a substance that causes damage to nerves or brain tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. As an allergen, sulfite is known to induce asthmatic reactions. Sulfite sensitivity occurs most often in asthmatic adults (predominantly women), but it is also occasionally reported in preschool children. Adverse reactions to sulfites in nonasthmatics are extremely rare. Asthmatics who are steroid-dependent or who have a higher degree of airway hyperreactivity may be at greater risk of experiencing a reaction to sulfite-containing foods. Sulfite sensitivity reactions vary widely, ranging from no reaction to severe. The majority of reactions are mild. These manifestations may include dermatologic, respiratory, or gastrointestinal signs and symptoms. The precise mechanisms of the sensitivity responses have not been completely elucidated: inhalation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) generated in the stomach following ingestion of sulfite-containing foods or beverages, a deficiency in a mitochondrial enzyme, and an IgE-mediated immune response have all been implicated. Exogenously supplied sulfite is detoxified by the enzyme sulfite oxidase. Sulfite oxidase (EC 1.8.3.1) is 1 of 3 enzymes in humans that require molybdenum as a cofactor. Under certain circumstances, chronically high levels of sulfite can lead to serious neurotoxicity. Sulfite oxidase deficiency (also called molybdenum cofactor deficiency) is a rare autosomal inherited disease that is typified by high concentrations of sulfite in the blood and urine. It is characterized by severe neurological symptoms such as untreatable seizures, attenuated growth of the brain, and mental retardation. It results from defects in the enzyme sulfite oxidase, which is responsible for the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate. This sulfite to sulfate reaction is the final step in the degradation of sulfur-containing metabolites (including the amino acids cysteine and methionine). The term "isolated sulfite oxidase deficiency" is used to define the deficiency caused by mutations in the sulfite oxidase gene. This differentiates it from another version of sulfite oxidase deficiency that is due to defects in the molybdenum cofactor biosynthetic pathway (with mutations in the MOCS1 or MOCS2 genes). Isolated sulfite oxidase deficiency is a rare but devastating neurologic disease that usually presents in early infancy with seizures and alterations in muscle tone (PMID: 16234925, 16140720, 8586770). Sulfite oxidase deficiency (as caused by MOCS1 or MOCS2) may be treated with cPMP, a precursor of the molybdenum cofactor (PMID: 20385644).  The mechanism behind sulfite neurotoxicity appears to be related to its ability to bind and inhibit glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). Inhibition of GDH leads to a decrease in alpha-ketoglutarate and a diminished flux through the tricarboxylic acid cycle. This is accompanied by a decrease in NADH through the mitochondrial electron transport chain, which leads to a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and in ATP synthesis. Since glutamate is a major metabolite in the brain, inhibition of GDH by sulfite appears to contribute to neural damage characteristic of sulfite oxidase deficiency in human infants (PMID: 15273247).

Bisulfite
Sulfite dianion
Sulfite ion
Sulfite ions
Sulfonate
Sulfur trioxide
Sulfuric anhydride
Sulphite
Trioxosulfate(2-)
Trioxosulfate(iv)
Trioxosulphate(2-)
Trioxosulphate(iv)
[so3](2-)
So3(2-)
Sulphite ion


CMP

Cytidine monophosphate, also known as 5'-cytidylic acid and abbreviated CMP, is a nucleotide. It is an ester of phosphoric acid with the nucleoside cytidine. CMP consists of the phosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase cytosine. Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) is derived from cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with subsequent loss of two phosphates. The synthesis of the pyrimidines CTP and UTP occurs in the cytoplasm and starts with the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from glutamine and CO2. Next, aspartate undergoes a condensation reaction with carbamoyl-phosphate to form orotic acid. In a subsequent cyclization reaction, the enzyme Aspartate carbamoyltransferase forms N-carbamoyl-aspartate which is converted into dihydroorotic acid by Dihydroorotase. The latter is converted to orotate by Dihydroorotate oxidase. Orotate is covalently linked with a phosphorylated ribosyl unit with Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (aka "PRPP transferase") catalyzing reaction, yielding orotidine monophosphate (OMP). Orotidine-5-phosphate is decarboxylated by Orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase to form uridine monophosphate (UMP). UMP is phosphorylated by two kinases to uridine triphosphate (UTP) via two sequential reactions with ATP. CTP is subsequently formed by amination of UTP by the catalytic activity of CTP synthetase. Cytosine monophosphate (CMP) and uridine monophosphate (UMP) have been prescribed for the treatment of neuromuscular affections in humans. Patients treated with CMP/UMP recover from altered neurological functions. Additionally, the administration of CMP/UMP appears to favour the entry of glucose in the muscle and CMP/UMP may be important in maintaining the level of hepatic glycogen constant during exercise. [PMID:18663991].

5'-cmp
5-cytidylate
5-cytidylic acid
Cmp
Cytidine 5'-monophosphate
Cytidine 5'-monophosphorate
Cytidine 5'-monophosphoric acid
Cytidine 5'-phosphate
Cytidine 5'-phosphorate
Cytidine 5'-phosphoric acid
Cytidine mono(dihydrogen phosphate)
Cytidine monophosphate
Cytidylate
Cytidylic acid
Cytidine-5'-monophosphate
Pc
Cytidine-5'-monophosphoric acid


D-ribulose 5-phosphate

D-Ribulose 5-phosphate belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pentose phosphates. These are carbohydrate derivatives containing a pentose substituted by one or more phosphate groups. D-Ribulose 5-phosphate is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). D-Ribulose 5-phosphate has been found in human prostate tissue, and has also been detected in multiple biofluids, such as saliva and blood. Within the cell, D-ribulose 5-phosphate is primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum. D-Ribulose 5-phosphate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. D-Ribulose 5-phosphate participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, D-Ribulose 5-phosphate can be converted into D-arabinose 5-phosphate through its interaction with the enzymes D-arabinose 5-phosphate isomerase and D-arabinose 5-phosphate isomerase 2. In addition, D-Ribulose 5-phosphate can be biosynthesized from 6-phosphogluconic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, decarboxylating. In humans, D-ribulose 5-phosphate is involved in the pentose phosphate pathway. D-Ribulose 5-phosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include ribose-5-phosphate isomerase deficiency, transaldolase deficiency, cancer (via the Warburg effect), and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. D-Ribulose 5-phosphate is a metabolite in the Pentose phosphate pathway, Pentose and glucuronate interconversions, and in the Riboflavin metabolism (KEGG).

D-ribulose 5-phosphate
Erythro-pentulose 5-phosphate
Ribulose 5-phosphate
Ribulose phosphate
Alpha-d-ribose 5-phosphate


D-Aspartic Acid

D-Aspartic acid is the D-isomer of aspartic acid. Since its discovery in invertebrates, free D-aspartate (D-Asp) has been identified in a variety of organisms, including microorganisms, plants, and lower animals, mammals and humans. D-Asp in mammalian tissues is present in specific cells, indicating the existence of specific molecular components that regulate D-Asp levels and localization in tissues. In the rat adrenal medulla, D-Asp is closely associated with adrenaline-cells (A-cells), which account for approximately 80% of the total number of chromaffin cells in the tissue, and which make and store adrenaline. D-Asp appears to be absent from noradrenaline-cells (NA-cells), which comprise approximately 20% of the total number of chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla, and which make and store noradrenaline. D-aspartate oxidase (EC 1.4.3.1, D-AspO), which catalyzes oxidative deamination of D-Asp, appears to be present only in NA-cells, suggesting that the lack of D-Asp in these cells is due to D-Asp oxidase-mediated metabolism of D-Asp. In the rat adrenal cortex, the distribution of D-Asp changes during development. It has been suggested that developmental changes in the localization of D-Asp reflects the participation of D-Asp in the development and maturation of steroidogenesis in rat adrenal cortical cells. D-Asp is involved in steroid hormone synthesis and secretion in mammals as well. D-Asp is synthesized intracellularly, most likely by Asp racemase (EC 5.1.1.13). Endogenous D-Asp apparently has two different intracellular localization patterns: cytoplasmic and vesicular. D-Asp release can occur through three distinct pathways: 1) spontaneous, continuous release of cytoplasmic D-Asp, which is not associated with a specific stimulus; 2) release of cytoplasmic D-Asp via a volume-sensitive organic anion channel that connects the cytoplasm and extracellular space; 3) exocytotic discharge of vesicular D-Asp. D-Asp can be released via a mechanism that involves the L-Glu transporter. D-Asp is thus apparently in dynamic flux at the cellular level to carry out its physiological function(s) in mammals. (PMID: 16755369).

(-)-aspartic acid
(2r)-2-aminobutanedioate
(2r)-2-aminobutanedioic acid
(r)-2-aminobutanedioate
(r)-2-aminobutanedioic acid
(r)-2-aminosuccinic acid
(r)-aspartic acid
1-amino-1,2-carboxyethane
Aspartic acid
D-(-)-aspartic acid
D-asparaginsaeure
D-aspartate
D-aspartic acid
Lopac-alpha-9256
Tocris-0213
Delta-(-)-aspartic acid
Delta-asparaginsaeure
Delta-aspartate
Delta-aspartic acid


Hypoxanthine

Hypoxanthine is a naturally occurring purine derivative and a reaction intermediate in the metabolism of adenosine and in the formation of nucleic acids by the salvage pathway. Hypoxanthine is also a spontaneous deamination product of adenine. Lesch-Nyhan disease is caused by deficiency of the purine salvage enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase. (OMIN 308000).


L-3-Hydroxykynurenine (L-3-HK) is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, the major route of tryptophan degradation in mammals. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase, an NADPH-dependent flavin monooxygenase, catalyses the hydroxylation of L-kynurenine to L-3-hydroxykynurenine. 3-hydroxykynurenine can be converted to 3-hydroxyanthranilate by the enzyme 3-hydroxykinureninase. It may also be converted to 4-(2-amino-3-hydroxphenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoate by the enzyme kynurenine-oxoglutarate transaminase. L-3-Hydroxykynurenine (L-3-HK) is a known generator of highly reactive free radicals. An elevation of L-3-HK levels has been shown to constitute a significant hazard in situations of excitotoxic injury. In particular, L-3-HK may contribute to the neuronal deficits underlying HIV-associated dementia (PMID: 7830088). Pharmacological interventions aimed at decreasing L-3-HK formation may therefore be particularly useful for the treatment of neurological diseases which are associated with an abnormally enhanced flux through the kynurenine pathway (PMID: 10583474).


Porphobilinogen

Porphobilinogen (PBG) is a pyrrole-containing intermediate in the biosynthesis of porphyrins. It is generated from aminolevulinate (ALA) by the enzyme ALA dehydratase. Porphobilinogen is then converted into hydroxymethylbilane by the enzyme porphobilinogen deaminase (also known as hydroxymethylbilane synthase). Under certain conditions, porphobilinogen can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).


Pyridoxic Acid

4-Pyridoxic acid is the catabolic product of vitamin B6 (also known as pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyradoxamine) which is excreted in the urine. Urinary levels of 4-pyridoxic acid are lower in females than in males and will be reduced in persons with riboflavin deficiency. 4-Pyridoxic acid is formed by the action of aldehyde oxidase I (an endogenous enzyme) and by microbial enzymes (pyridoxal 4-dehydrogenase), an NAD-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase. 4-pyridoxic acid can be further broken down by the gut microflora via 4-pyridoxic acid dehydrogenase. This enzyme catalyzes the four electron oxidation of 4-pyridoxic acid to 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine-4,5-dicarboxylate, using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide as a cofactor.


Farnesyl diphosphate

Farnesyl pyrophosphate, also known as farnesyl diphosphoric acid or farnesyl-PP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as sesquiterpenoids. These are terpenes with three consecutive isoprene units. Farnesyl pyrophosphate is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. Farnesyl pyrophosphate has been found in human testicle tissue, and has also been primarily detected in blood. Farnesyl pyrophosphate can be found anywhere throughout the human cell, such as in membrane (predicted from logP), peroxisome, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. Farnesyl pyrophosphate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Farnesyl pyrophosphate participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, Ferroheme b and farnesyl pyrophosphate can be converted into heme O; which is mediated by the enzyme heme O synthase. Furthermore, Farnesyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate can be converted into octaprenyl diphosphate through the action of the enzyme octaprenyl diphosphate synthase. Furthermore, Farnesyl pyrophosphate can be biosynthesized from geranyl-PP and isopentenyl pyrophosphate through its interaction with the enzyme geranyl diphosphate synthase / farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Finally, Farnesyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate can be converted into di-trans,octa-cis-undecaprenyl diphosphate; which is catalyzed by the enzyme undecaprenyl diphosphate synthase. In humans, farnesyl pyrophosphate is involved in the simvastatin action pathway, the risedronate action pathway, the alendronate action pathway, and the ibandronate action pathway. Farnesyl pyrophosphate is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the hyper-igd syndrome pathway, the chondrodysplasia punctata II, X linked dominant (CDPX2) pathway, the porphyria variegata (PV) pathway, and lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (wolman disease). Outside of the human body, farnesyl pyrophosphate can be found in a number of food items such as sweet basil, apple, spearmint, and nuts. This makes farnesyl pyrophosphate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Farnesyl pyrophosphate is an intermediate in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway used by organisms in the biosynthesis of terpenes and terpenoids. -- Wikipedia.


(R)-5-phosphomevalonic acid

Mevalonic acid-5P, also known as mevalonate-5P or phosphomevalonate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as monoalkyl phosphates. These are organic compounds containing a phosphate group that is linked to exactly one alkyl chain. Mevalonic acid-5P is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Mevalonic acid-5P has been found throughout most human tissues. Within the cell, mevalonic acid-5P is primarily located in the peroxisome. In humans, mevalonic acid-5P is involved in the pamidronate action pathway, the fluvastatin action pathway, the simvastatin action pathway, and steroid biosynthesis pathway. Mevalonic acid-5P is also involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include the smith-lemli-opitz syndrome (slos) pathway, the hypercholesterolemia pathway, the wolman disease pathway, and the child syndrome pathway. Outside of the human body, mevalonic acid-5P can be found in a number of food items such as elderberry, persian lime, purple laver, and apple. This makes mevalonic acid-5P a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. 5-Phosphomevalonate is a metabolic intermediate in the mevalonate pathway, catalyzed by the enzyme mevalonate kinase from Mevalonate. (wikipedia).


4-(2-Aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkyl-phenylketones. These are aromatic compounds containing a ketone substituted by one alkyl group, and a phenyl group. 4-(2-Aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid is considered to be a practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral molecule. 4-(2-Aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid has been primarily detected in feces. Within the cell, 4-(2-aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid is primarily located in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. 4-(2-Aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. In humans, 4-(2-aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid is involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathway. 4-(2-Aminophenyl)-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid is a substrate for Kynurenine/alpha-aminoadipate aminotransferase mitochondrial.


Thioctamide

Lipoamide is the oxidized form of glutathione. (PMID:8957191). Lipoamide is a trivial name for 6,8-dithiooctanoic amide. It is 6,8-dithiooctanoic acid's functional form where the carboxyl group is attached to protein (or any other amine) by an amide linkage (containing -NH2) to an amino group. Lipoamide forms a thioester bond, oxidizing the disulfide bond, with acetaldehyde (pyruvate after it has been decarboxylated). It then transfers the acetaldehyde group to CoA which can then continue in the TCA cycle. (Wikipedia). Lipoamide is an intermediate in glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, citrate cycle (TCA cycle), alanine, aspartate and pyruvate metabolism, and valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation (KEGG:C00248). It is generated from dihydrolipoamide via the enzyme dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (EC:1.8.1.4) and then converted to S-glutaryl-dihydrolipoamide via the enzyme oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (EC:1.2.4.2).

1,2-dithiolane-3-pentanamide
5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)-pentanamide
5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)pentanamide
5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)valeramide
5-(dithiolan-3-yl)valeramide
Dl-lipoamide
Dl-6-thioctic amide
Lipamide
Lipoacin
Lipoamid
Lipoicin
Lipozyme
Lypoaran
Pathoclon
Thioami
Thioctamid
Thioctamide
Thioctic acid amide
Thioctic acid amide (jan)
Thiotomin
Ticolin
Vitamin n
Alpha-lipoate
Alpha-lipoic acid
Alpha-lipoic acid amide
A-lipoate amide
A-lipoic acid amide
Alpha-lipoate amide
α-lipoate amide
α-lipoic acid amide
Thioctate amide


Estrone sulfate

Estrone sulfate is a sulfated estrone derivative. Estrone sulfate acts as a long-lived reservoir that can be converted as needed to the more active estradiol (from estrone via 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase). Estrone Sulfate (E1S) is the most abundant circulating estrogen in non-pregnant women as well as normal men. Estrone is primarily synthesized from estrone sulfate. Estrone is an estrogenic hormone secreted by the ovaries and adipose tissues. Estrone is one of the three estrogens found in humans. The other two are estriol and estradiol. Estrone is the least prevalent of the three. Estradiol plays a critical role on reproductive and sexual functioning in women and it also affects other organs including the bones. Estriol is an estrogen that is prevalent primarily during pregnancy.

3-hydroxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-one hydrogen sulfuric acid

3-hydroxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-one hydrogen sulphuric acid


L-cystathionine

Cystathionine is a dipeptide formed by serine and homocysteine. Cystathioninuria is a prominent manifestation of vitamin-B6 deficiency. The transsulfuration of methionine yields homocysteine, which combines with serine to form cystathionine, the proximate precursor of cysteine through the enzymatic activity of cystathionase. In conditions in which cystathionine gamma-synthase or cystathionase is deficient, for example, there is cystathioninuria. Although cystathionine has not been detected in normal human serum or plasma by most conventional methods, gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric methodology detected a mean concentration of cystathionine in normal human serum of 140 nM, with a range of 65 to 301 nM.567 Cystathionine concentrations in CSF have been 10, 1, and 0.5 uM, and "not detected." Only traces (i.e., <1 uM) of cystathionine are present in normal CSF.587. gamma-Cystathionase deficiency provided the first instance in which, in a human, the major biochemical abnormality due to a defined enzyme defect was clearly shown to be alleviated by administration of large doses of pyridoxine. The response in gamma-cystathionase-deficient patients is not attributable to correction of a preexisting deficiency of this vitamin. (OMMBID, Chap. 88).


Cyclic AMP

cAMP or cyclic AMP is an adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH. cAMP is synthesized from ATP by adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase is located at the cell membranes. Adenylate cyclase is activated by the hormones glucagon and adrenaline and by G protein. Liver adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to glucagon, and muscle adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to adrenaline. cAMP decomposition into AMP is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

Adenosine 3,5'-cyclic monophosphoric acid

Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphoric acid


O-palmitoyl-L-carnitine

L-Palmitoylcarnitine is a long-chain acyl fatty acid derivative ester of carnitine which facilitates the transfer of long-chain fatty acids from cytoplasm into mitochondria during the oxidation of fatty acids. L-palmitoylcarnitine, due to its amphipatic character is, like detergents, a surface-active molecule and by changing the membrane fluidity and surface charge can change activity of several enzymes and transporters localized in the membrane. L-palmitoylcarnitine has been also reported to change the activity of certain proteins. On the contrary to carnitine, palmitoylcarnitine was shown to stimulate the activity of caspases 3, 7 and 8 and the level of this long-chain acylcarnitine increased during apoptosis. Palmitoylcarnitine was also reported to diminish completely binding of phorbol esters, the protein kinase C activators and to decrease the autophosphorylation of the enzyme. Apart from these isoform nonspecific phenomena, palmitoylcarnitine was also shown to be responsible for retardation in cytoplasm of protein kinase C isoforms β and δ and, in the case of the latter one, to decrease its interaction with GAP-43. Some of the physico-chemical properties of palmitoylcarnitine may help to explain the need for coenzyme A-carnitine-coenzyme A acyl exchange during mitochondrial fatty acid import. The amphiphilic character of palmitoylcarnitine may also explain its proposed involvement in the pathogenesis of myocardial ischemia. L-Palmitoylcarnitine accumulates in ischemic myocardium and potentially contribute to myocardial damage through alterations in membrane molecular dynamics , one mechanism through which could play an important role in ischemic injury. Palmitoylcarnitine is characteristically elevated in carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency, late-onset (OMIM 255110). (PMID 2540838, 15363641, 8706815).


7alpha-hydroxycholesterol is an oxysterol and can serve as a biomarker for lipid peroxidation. (PMID: 17386651) Products of cholesterol oxidation accumulate within atherosclerotic plaque and have been proposed to contribute to inflammatory signalling in the diseased artery. (PMID: 17364953). 7alpha-hydroxycholesterol is a cholesterol oxide that has been described as biomarker of oxidative stress in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes. (PMID: 16634125).


Galactinol

Galactinol is an intermediate in galactose metabolism. Galactinol is the. 4th to last step in the synthesis of D-Galactose and the 3rd to last step in the synthesis of D-glucose and D-fructose. Galactinol is converted from UDP-galactose via the enzyme inositol 3-alpha-galactosyltransferase(EC 2.4.1.123). It is then converted to raffinose via the enzyme raffinose synthase (EC 2.4.1.82).


5'-Methylthioadenosine (MTA) is a naturally occurring sulfur-containing nucleoside present in all mammalian tissues. It is produced from S-adenosylmethionine mainly through the polyamine biosynthetic pathway, where it behaves as a powerful inhibitory product. MTA is metabolized solely by MTA-phosphorylase, to yield 5-methylthioribose-1-phosphate and adenine, a crucial step in the methionine and purine salvage pathways, respectively. Evidence suggests that MTA can affect cellular processes in many ways. For instance, MTA has been shown to influence the regulation of gene expression, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis (PMID: 15313459). 5-Methylthioadenosine can be found in human urine. Elevated excretion appears in children with severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (SCID) (PMID: 3987052).


cyanide

The cyanide ion consists of a carbon triple bonded to a nitrogen. It readily reacts with hydrogen to form hydrogen cyanide gas, which has a faint almond-like smell. Most people can smell hydrogen cyanide; however, due to an apparent genetic trait, some individuals cannot. Cyanide gas (HCN) can be generated via combustion, including the exhaust of internal combustion engines, tobacco smoke, and especially some plastics derived from acrylonitrile (because of the latter effect, house fires can result in poisonings of the inhabitants). Cyanides are also produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae and are found in a number of foods and plants. Small amounts of cyanide can be found in apple seeds, mangoes and bitter almonds. Hydrocyanic acid (a solution of hydrogen cyanide in water) is present in freshly distilled bitter almond oil (2-4%) prior to its removal by precipitation as calcium ferrocyanide to give food quality oil. Hydrogen cyanide and most cyanide salts readily dissolve in water (or other biofluids) and exists in solution as the cyanide ion. Cyanide ions bind to the iron atom of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (also known as aa3) in the fourth complex in the mitochondrial membrane in the mitochondria of cells. The binding of cyanide to this cytochrome prevents transport of electrons from cytochrome c oxidase to oxygen. As a result, the electron transport chain is disrupted, meaning that the cell can no longer aerobically produce ATP for energy. Tissues that mainly depend on aerobic respiration, such as the central nervous system and the heart, are particularly affected. Because of its respiratory chain toxicity cyanide has been used as a poison many times throughout history. Its most infamous application was the use of hydrogen cyanide by the Nazi regime in Germany for mass murder in some gas chambers during the Holocaust. Hydrogen cyanide (with the historical common name of Prussic acid) is a colorless and highly volatile liquid that boils slightly above room temperature at 26 °C (78.8 °F). Hydrogen cyanide is weakly acidic and partly ionizes in solution to give the cyanide anion, CN-. The salts of hydrogen cyanide are known as cyanides. HCN is a highly valuable precursor to many chemical compounds ranging from polymers to pharmaceuticals. Hydrogen cyanide is a linear molecule, with a triple bond between carbon and nitrogen. It is a weak acid with a pKa of 9.2. A minor tautomer of HCN is HNC, hydrogen isocyanide.

Carbon nitride ion
Chuck norrisium
Cyanide
Cyanide ion
Cyanide(1-) ion
Cyano
Cyanure
Isocyanide
Prussiate


gamma-Glutamylcysteine

gamma-Glutamylcysteine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and cysteine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha Amino Acids and Derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylcysteine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. gamma-Glutamylcysteine is a product of enzyme glutamate-cysteine ligase [EC 6.3.2.2] and a substrate of enzyme glutathione synthase [EC 6.3.2.3] in the glutamate metabolism pathway (KEGG).


phosphatidylglycerol

PG(14:0/18:1(9Z)) is a phosphatidylglycerol. Phosphatidylglycerols consist of a glycerol 3-phosphate backbone esterified to either saturated or unsaturated fatty acids on carbons 1 and 2. As is the case with diacylglycerols, phosphatidylglycerols can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached to the C-1 and C-2 positions. PG(14:0/18:1(9Z)), in particular, consists of one tetradecanoyl chain  to the C-1 atom, and one 9Z-octadecenoyl  to the C-2 atom. In E. coli glycerophospholipid metabolism, phosphatidylglycerol is formed from phosphatidic acid (1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate) by a sequence of enzymatic reactions that proceeds via two intermediates, cytidine diphosphate diacylglycerol (CDP-diacylglycerol) and phosphatidylglycerophosphate (PGP, a phosphorylated phosphatidylglycerol). Phosphatidylglycerols, along with CDP-diacylglycerol, also serve as precursor molecules for the synthesis of cardiolipin, a phospholipid found in membranes.


alditol

Glycerol or glycerin is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and mostly non-toxic. It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol is an important component of triglycerides (i.e. fats and oils) and of phospholipids. Glycerol is a three-carbon substance that forms the backbone of fatty acids in fats. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream. The glycerol component can be converted into glucose by the liver and provides energy for cellular metabolism. Normally, glycerol shows very little acute toxicity and very high oral doses or acute exposures can be tolerated. On the other hand, chronically high levels of glycerol in the blood are associated with glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD). GKD causes the condition known as hyperglycerolemia, an accumulation of glycerol in the blood and urine. There are three clinically distinct forms of GKD: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The infantile form is the most severe and is associated with vomiting, lethargy, severe developmental delay, and adrenal insufficiency. The mechanisms of glycerol toxicity in infants are not known, but it appears to shift metabolism towards chronic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated GKD. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. Patients with the adult form of GKD generally have no symptoms and are often detected fortuitously.

1,2,3-trihydroxypropane
Bulbold
Cristal
E 422
Emery 916
Glyceol opthalgan
Glycerin
Glycerine
Glyceritol
Glycerol
Glycyl alcohol
Glyrol
Glysanin
Ifp
Incorporation factor
Mackstat h 66
Osmoglyn
Pricerine 9091
Propanetriol
Rg-s
Trihydroxypropane
Tryhydroxypropane
1,2,3-propanetriol
Glycerolum
Glyzerin
Gro
Oelsuess


(2-{[2-(formyloxy)acetyl]oxy}ethoxy)[(2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxycyclohexyl)oxy]phosphinic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as inositol phosphates. Inositol phosphates are compounds containing a phosphate group attached to an inositol (or cyclohexanehexol) moiety (2-{[2-(formyloxy)acetyl]oxy}ethoxy)[(2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxycyclohexyl)oxy]phosphinic acid is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa).


all-trans-hexaprenyl diphosphate

All-trans-hexaprenyl diphosphate is the final product of hexaprenyl diphosphate biosynthesis pathway.In this pathway multiple units of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) undergo a series of polymerizations to form various polyisoprenoids. There are two different pathways for the biosynthesis of IPP. Bacteria that possess ubiquinone generally use the methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP), while the eukaryotic microorganisms use the mevalonate pathway. However, exceptions exist - for example, some eukaryotic microbes, like the green algae and the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum , appear to utilize the MEP pathway, and some bacteria utilze the mevalonate pathway [ Eisenreich01 , Eisenreich04 ]. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae S288C the initial addition of two isoprenyl units to form (E,E)-farnesyl diphosphate is catalyzed by geranyltransferase / dimethylallyltransferase , encoded by FPP1. An additional unit is added by farnesyltranstransferase (encoded by BTS1 ), resulting in formation of all-trans-geranyl-geranyl diphosphate. The last enzyme in this pathway is hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase (encoded by COQ1 ), which adds additional isoprenoid units to a maximal length unique to the organism. In the case of Saccharomyces cerevisiae S288C , it is 6 units. Polyprenyl diphosphate synthase enzymes, such as hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase , are responsible for determining the final length of the tail. When yeast COQ1 mutants are complemented with homologs from other organisms, ubiquinone biosynthesis is restored, but the tail lenghth of the quinone depends on the source of the enzyme.

(2e,6e,10e,14e,18e)-3,7,11,15,19,23-hexamethyltetracosa-2,6,10,14,18,22-hexaen-1-yl trihydrogen diphosphoric acid


Bicarbonate Ion

Bicarbonate, or hydrogen carbonate, is a simple single carbon molecule that plays surprisingly important roles in diverse biological processes. Among these are photosynthesis, the Krebs cycle, whole-body and cellular pH regulation, and volume regulation. Since bicarbonate is charged it is not permeable to lipid bilayers. Mammalian membranes thus contain bicarbonate transport proteins to facilitate the specific transmembrane movement of HCO3(-). Bicarbonate ion is an anion that consists of one central carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement, with a hydrogen atom attached to one of the oxygens. The bicarbonate ion carries a negative one formal charge and is the conjugate base of carbonic acid, H2CO3. The carbonate radical is an elusive and strong one-electron oxidant. Bicarbonate in equilibrium with carbon dioxide constitutes the main physiological buffer. The bicarbonate-carbon dioxide pair stimulates the oxidation, peroxidation and nitration of several biological targets. The demonstration that the carbonate radical existed as an independent species in aqueous solutions at physiological pH and temperature renewed the interest in the pathophysiological roles of this radical and related species. The carbonate radical has been proposed to be a key mediator of the oxidative damage resulting from peroxynitrite production, xanthine oxidase turnover and superoxide dismutase1 peroxidase activity. The carbonate radical has also been proposed to be responsible for the stimulatory effects of the bicarbonate-carbon dioxide pair on oxidations mediated by hydrogen peroxide/transition metal ions. The ultimate precursor of the carbonate radical anion being bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, peroxymonocarbonate or complexes of transition metal ions with bicarbonate-derived species remains a matter of debate. The carbonate radical mediates some of the pathogenic effects of peroxynitrite. The carbonate radical as the oxidant produced from superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1, SOD1) peroxidase activity. Peroxymonocarbonate is a biological oxidant, whose existence is in equilibrium with hydrogen peroxide and bicarbonate. (PMID: 17505962, 17215880).

Bicarbonate
Bicarbonate (hco3-)
Bicarbonate anion
Bicarbonate ion
Bicarbonate ion (hco31-)
Bicarbonate ions
Carbonate
Carbonate (hco31-)
Carbonate ion (hco31-)
Carbonic acid
Hydrocarbonate(1-)
Hydrogen carbonate
Hydrogen carbonate (hco3-)
Hydrogen carbonate anion
Hydrogen carbonate ion
Hydrogen carbonate ion (hco3-)
Hydrogencarbonate
Hydrogentrioxocarbonate
Monohydrogen carbonate
[co2(oh)](-)
Acid carbonate
Hco3(-)
Hydrogen carbonic acid
Acid carbonic acid
Bicarbonic acid
Bicarbonic acid ion


Aminolevulinic acid

5-Aminolevulinic acid is an intermediate in heme synthesis. This is the first compound in the porphyrin synthesis pathway. It is produced by the enzyme ALA synthase, from glycine and succinyl CoA. This reaction is known as the Shemin pathway. Aminolevulinic acid plus blue light illumination using a blue light photodynamic therapy illuminator is indicated for the treatment of minimally to moderately thick actinic keratoses of the face or scalp.

5-amino-4-oxo-pentanoate
5-amino-4-oxo-pentanoic acid
5-amino-4-oxopentanoate
5-amino-4-oxopentanoic acid
5-amino-4-oxovalerate
5-amino-4-oxovaleric acid
5-amino-levulinate
5-amino-levulinic acid
5-aminolaevulinate
5-aminolaevulinic acid
5-aminolevulinate
Aladerm
Amino-levulinic acid
Aminolevulinate
Aminolevulinic acid
Kerastick
Delta-aminolevulinate
Delta-aminolevulinic acid
5-ala
Dala
Delta-ala
5-aminolevulinic acid
δ-ala
δ-aminolevulinate
δ-aminolevulinic acid


GDP

Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). A guanine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. It is an ester of pyrophosphoric acid with the nucleoside guanosine. GDP consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, and the nucleobase guanine. GDP is the product of GTP dephosphorylation by GTPases, e.g. the G-proteins that are involved in signal transduction.


CID 5232324

Phosphoethanolamine (PE) is a phosphomonoester metabolite of the phospholipid metabolism. PE is a precursor of phospholipid synthesis and a product of phospholipid breakdown. Phosphomonoesters are present at much higher levels in brain than in other organs. In developing brain, phosphomonoesters are normally elevated during the period of neuritic proliferation. This also coincides with the occurrence of normal programmed cell death and synaptic pruning in developing brain. These findings are consistent with the role of phosphomonoesters in membrane biosynthesis. PE shows a strong structural similarity to the inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA, and the GABAB receptor partial agonist, 3-amino-propylphosphonic acid. PE is a phosphomonoester which is decreased in post-mortem Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. (PMID: 7791524, 8588821, 11566853).

2-amino-ethanol dihydrogen phosphate (ester)

2-aminoethyl dihydrogen phosphate (acd/name 4.0)

Phosphoric acid 2-aminoethyl phenyl ester

2-amino-ethanol dihydrogen phosphoric acid


Cysteine

Cysteine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid that is found in most proteins, although only in small quantities. Cysteine is unique amongst the twenty natural amino acids as it contains a thiol group. Thiol groups can undergo oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions; when cysteine is oxidized it can form cystine, which is two cysteine residues joined by a disulfide bond. This reaction is reversible since the reduction of this disulphide bond regenerates two cysteine molecules. The disulphide bonds of cystine are crucial to defining the structures of many proteins. Cysteine is often involved in electron-transfer reactions, and help the enzyme catalyze its reaction. Cysteine is also part of the antioxidant glutathione. N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) is a form of cysteine where an acetyl group is attached to cysteine's nitrogen atom and is sold as a dietary supplement. Cysteine is named after cystine, which comes from the Greek word kustis meaning bladder (cystine was first isolated from kidney stones). Oxidation of cysteine can produce a disulfide bond with another thiol and further oxidation can produce sulphfinic or sulfonic acids. The cysteine thiol group is also a nucleophile and can undergo addition and substitution reactions. Thiol groups become much more reactive when they are ionized, and cysteine residues in proteins have pKa values close to neutrality, so they are often in their reactive thiolate form in the cell. The thiol group also has a high affinity for heavy metals and proteins containing cysteine will bind metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium tightly. Due to this ability to undergo redox reactions, cysteine has antioxidant properties. Cysteine is an important source of sulfur in human metabolism, and although it is classified as a non-essential amino acid, cysteine may be essential for infants, the elderly, and individuals with certain metabolic disease or who suffer from malabsorption syndromes. Cysteine may at some point be recognized as an essential or conditionally essential amino acid (Wikipedia). Cysteine is important in energy metabolism. As cystine, it is a structural component of many tissues and hormones. Cysteine has clinical uses ranging from baldness to psoriasis to preventing smoker's hack. In some cases, oral cysteine therapy has proved excellent for treatment of asthmatics, enabling them to stop theophylline and other medications. Cysteine also enhances the effect of topically applied silver, tin, and zinc salts in preventing dental cavities. In the future, cysteine may play a role in the treatment of cobalt toxicity, diabetes, psychosis, cancer, and seizures (http://www.dcnutrition.com/AminoAcids/).

(+)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid
(2r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate
(2r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid
(2r)-2-amino-3-sulfanylpropanoate
(2r)-2-amino-3-sulfanylpropanoic acid
(r)-(+)-cysteine
(r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate
(r)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid
(r)-2-amino-3-mercapto-propanoate
(r)-2-amino-3-mercapto-propanoic acid
(r)-cysteine
2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate
2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid
2-amino-3-mercaptopropionate
2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid
3-mercapto-l-alanine
Acetylcysteine
B-mercaptoalanine
Carbocysteine
Cisteina
Cisteinum
Cystein
Cysteine
Cysteinum
Free cysteine
Half-cystine
L cysteine
L-(+)-cysteine
L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoate
L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropanoic acid
L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionic acid
L-cystein
L-cysteine
Polycysteine
Thioserine
Alpha-amino-beta-thiolpropionic acid
Beta-mercaptoalanine
C
Cys
E920
L-zystein
(2r)-2-amino-3-sulphanylpropanoate
(2r)-2-amino-3-sulphanylpropanoic acid
L-2-amino-3-mercaptopropionate


Cytidine

Cytidine is a nucleoside that is composed of the base cytosine linked to the five-carbon sugar D-ribose. Cytidine is a pyrimidine that besides being incorporated into nucleic acids, can serve as a substrate for the salvage pathway of pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. It is a precursor of cytidine triphosphate (CTP) needed in the phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) biosynthetic pathways. These variations probably reflect the species differences in cytidine deaminase, the enzyme that converts cytidine to uridine in the body. The transport of cytidine into the brain's extracellular fluid, and then into neurons and glia, are essential prerequisites for cytidine to be utilized in the brain. An efficient mechanism mediating the brain uptake of circulating cytidine has not yet been demonstrated. The biosynthesis of PC, the most abundant phosphatide in the brain, via the Kennedy pathway requires phosphocholine and cytidine triphosphate (CTP), a cytidine nucleotide involved in the rate-limiting step. The enzyme that converts CTP to endogenous CDP-choline (CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase) is unsaturated at physiological brain CTP levels. APOBEC is a family of enzymes that has been discovered with the ability to deaminate cytidines on RNA or DNA. The human apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G protein (APOBEC3G, or hA3G), provides cells with an intracellular antiretroviral activity that is associated with the hypermutation of viral DNA through cytidine deamination. Indeed, hA3G belongs to a family of vertebrate proteins that contains one or two copies of a signature sequence motif unique to cytidine deaminases (CTDAs) (PMID: 16769123, 15780864, 16720547).


Uracil

Uracil is a common naturally occurring pyrimidine found in RNA, it base pairs with adenine and is replaced by thymine in DNA. Methylation of uracil produces thymine. Uracil's use in the body is to help carry out the synthesis of many enzymes necessary for cell function through bonding with riboses and phosphates. Uracil serves as allosteric regulator and coenzyme for many important biochemical reactions. UDP and UTP regulate CPSase II activity in animals. UDP-glucose regulates the conversion of glucose to galactose in the liver and other tissues in the process of carbohydrate metabolism. Uracil is also involved in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides and the transportation of sugars containing aldehydes.


S-(2-Methylpropionyl)-dihydrolipoamide-E is an intermediate in valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation(KEGG ID C15977). It is the second to last step in the synthesis of branched chain fatty acid and is converted from 2-methyl-1-hydroxypropyl-ThPP via the enzyme 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase [EC:1.2.4.4]. It is then converted to isobutyryl-CoA via the enzyme dihydrolipoyllysine-residue (2-methylpropanoyl)transferase [EC:2.3.1.168].


Beta carotene

B-Carotene is a carotenoid that is a precursor of vitamin A. It is administered to reduce the severity of photosensitivity reactions in patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria (porphyria, erythropoietic). (From Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Engewood, CO, 1995.) -- Pubchem; Carotene is an orange photosynthetic pigment important for photosynthesis. It is responsible for the orange colour of the carrot and many other fruits and vegetables. It contributes to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy it absorbs to chlorophyll. Chemically, carotene is a terpene. It is the dimer of retinol (vitamin A) and comes in two primary forms: alpha- and beta-carotene. gamma-, delta- and epsilon-carotene also exist. Carotene can be stored in the liver and converted to vitamin A as needed. Beta-carotene is an anti-oxidant and such can be useful for curbing the excess of damaging free radicals in the body. However, the usefulness of beta-carotene as a dietary supplement (i.e. taken as a pill) is still subject to debate. Beta-carotene is fat-soluble, so a small amount of fat is needed to absorb it into the body. -- Wikipedia.


Gemcitabine

Gemcitabine is a nucleoside analog used as chemotherapy. It is marketed as Gemzar by Eli Lilly and Company. As with fluorouracil and other analogues of pyrimidines, the drug replaces one of the building blocks of nucleic acids, in this case cytidine, during DNA replication. The process arrests tumor growth, as new nucleosides cannot be attached to the 'faulty' nucleoside, resulting in apoptosis (cellular 'suicide').


Hydroquinone

Hydroquinone, also known as benzene-1,4-diol, is an aromatic organic compound which is a type of phenol, having the chemical formula C6H4(OH)2. Its chemical structure has two hydroxyl groups bonded to a benzene ring in a para position. Hydroquinone is commonly used as a biomarker for benzene exposure. The presence of hydroquinone in normal individuals stems mainly from direct dietary ingestion, catabolism of tyrosine and other substrates by gut bacteria, ingestion of arbutin-containing foods, cigarette smoking, and the use of some over-the-counter medicines. Hydroquinone is a white granular solid at room temperature and pressure. The hydroxyl groups of hydroquinone are quite weakly acidic. Hydroquinone can lose an H+ from one of the hydroxyls to form a monophenolate ion or lose an H+ from both to form a diphenolate ion. Hydroquinone has a variety of uses principally associated with its action as a reducing agent which is soluble in water. It is a major component of most photographic developers where, with the compound Metol, it reduces silver halides to elemental silver.

1,4-benzenediol
1,4-dihydroxy-benzeen
1,4-dihydroxy-benzol
1,4-dihydroxybenzen
1,4-diidrobenzene
4-hydroxyphenol
Benzene-1,4-diol
Benzohydroquinone
Benzoquinol
Dihydroquinone
Dihydroxybenzene
Hydrochinon
Hydrochinone
Hydroquinol
Hydroquinole
Hydroquinone
Hydroquinone for synthesis
Hydroquinone gr
Hydroquinoue
Idrochinone
Melanex
Phiaquin
Quinol
Solaquin forte
A-hydroquinone
Alpha-hydroquinone
B-quinol
Beta-quinol
P-benzenediol
P-dihydroxybenzene
P-dioxobenzene
P-dioxybenzene
P-hydroquinone
P-hydroxybenzene
P-hydroxyphenol
1,4-dihydroxybenzene
Eldoquin